EXUBRIS NATURIS

CARL &EM1L7 KING

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Marine Biological Laboratory Library

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Gift of Bostwiek K. Ketehum - 1976

PLATE I.

y-r

A MANUAL

OF THE

STUDY OF INSECTS

BY

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK

Professor of Entomology in Cornell University

AND

ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK

Member of the Society of American Wood- Engravers

urteentb JE&ition

ITHACA, N. Y.

THE COMSTOCK PUBLISHING COMPANY

1916

Copyright, 1895,

BY

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK.

PREFACE.

FOR many years the most pressing demand of teachers
and learners in entomology in this country has been for a
handbook by means of which the names and relative affini-
ties of insects may be determined in some such way as
plants are classified by the aid of the well-known manuals
of botany. But, as the science of entomology is still in its
infancy, the preparation of such a handbook has been im-
possible. Excellent treatises on particular groups of insects
have been published ; but no general work including analyt-
ical keys to all the orders and families has appeared. It is
to meet this need that this work has been prepared.

The reader must not expect, however, to find that de-
gree of completeness in this work which exists in the man-
uals of flowering plants. The number of species of insects
is so great that a work including adequate descriptions of all
those occurring in our fauna would rival in size one of the
larger encyclopaedias. It is obvious that such a work is not
what is needed by the teachers and students in our schools,
even if it were possible to prepare it. An elementary work
on systematic entomology will always of necessity be re-
stricted to a discussion of the characteristics of the orders
and families, and descriptions of a few species as illustrations.
Complete synopses of species will be appropriate only in
works treating of limited groups. It is believed, therefore,
that it would not be wise to materially change the scope of

IV PREFACE.

the present work even if it were possible to describe all of
our species.

Although much pains has been taken to render easy the
classification of specimens, an effort has been made to give
the mere determination of the names of insects a very sub-
ordinate place. The groups of insects have been fully char-
acterized, so that their relative affinities maybe learned;
and much* space has been given to accounts of the habits
and transformations of the forms described. As the needs
of agricultural students have been kept constantly in view,
those species that are of economic importance have been
described as fully as practicable, and particular attention has
been given to descriptions of the methods of destroying
those that are noxious, or of preventing their ravages.

An effort has been made to simplify the study of in-
sects as much as possible without sacrificing accuracy in the
descriptions. Only such morphological terms have been
used as were necessary to accomplish the object of the book
in a satisfactory manner. And so far as possible a uniform
nomenclature has been used for all orders of insects. The
fact that writers on each order of insects have a peculiar
nomenclature has been a serious obstacle to the progress of
entomology; this is especially true as regards the nomen-
clature of the wing-veins. It has been necessary for the
student in passing from the study of one order of insects to
that of another to learn a new set of terms; and in many
cases writers on a single family have a peculiar nomenclature.

The present writer has endeavored to remove this
obstacle by making a serious study of the homologies of the
wing-veins, and by applying the same term throughout the
work to homologous veins. The result is that the student
is required to learn only one set of terms ; and in applying
these terms there will be brought to his attention in a forci-
ble manner the peculiar modifications of structure charac-
teristic of each order of insects. Heretofore, with a differ-
ent nomenclature for the wing-veins of each order such a

PREFACE. V

comparative study of the various methods of specialization
has been beyond the reach of any but the most advanced
scholars.

The principal features of the method of notation of wing-
veins proposed by Josef Redtenbacher has been adopted.
But as the writer's views regarding the structure of the
wings of primitive insects are very different from those
of Redtenbacher, the nomenclature proposed in this book is
to a great extent original. The chief point of difference
arises from the belief by the present writer that veins IV
and VI do not exist in the Lepidoptera, Diptera, and
Hymenoptera ; and that, in those orders where they do exist,
they are secondary developments. The reasons for this be-
lief are set forth at length in my essay on Evolution and
Taxonomy.

In this essay there was proposed a new classification of
the Lepidoptera, which was the result of an effort to work
out the phylogeny of the divisions of this order. This classi-
fication has been further elaborated in the present work. In
the other orders but few changes have been made from the
more generally accepted classifications. It is more than
probable however, that when the taxonomic principles upon
which this classification of the Lepidoptera is based are ap-
plied to the classification of the other orders radical changes
will be found to be necessary.

A serious obstacle to the popularization of Natural His-
tory is the technical names that it is necessary to use. In
order to reduce this difficulty to a minimum the pronuncia-
tion of all of the Latin terms used has been indicated, by
dividing each into syllables and marking the accented
syllable. In doing this the well-established rules for the
division of Latin words into syllables have been followed.
It seems necessary to state this fact in order to account for
differences which exist between the pronunciations given
here and some of those in certain large dictionaries recently
published in this country.

VI PREFACE.

Nearly all of the wood-cuts have been engraved from
nature by the Junior Author. As the skill which she has
attained in this art has been acquired during the progress
of the work on this book, some of the earlier-made illustra-
tions do not fairly represent her present standing as an
engraver. But it does not seem worth while to delay the
appearance of the book in order to re-engrave these figures;
especially as it is believed that they will not be found lack-
ing in scientific accuracy. The generous appreciation which
the best engravers have shown towards the greater part of
the work leads us to hope that it will be welcomed as an
important addition to entomological illustrations.

Although the chief work of the Junior Author has been
with the pencil and graver, many parts of the text are from
her pen. But in justice to her it should be said that the
plan of the book was changed after she had finished her
writing. It was intended at first to make the book of a
much more elementary nature than it is in its final form.
It has seemed best, however, to leave these parts as written
in order that the work may be of interest to a wider range
of readers than it would be were it restricted to a uniform
style of treatment.

The figures illustrating the venation of the wings of in-
sects have been drawn with great care under the writer's
direction by Mr. E. P. Felt and Mr. R. H. Pettit. About
one half of those in the chapter on Lepidoptera were drawn
by Mr. Felt ; the others in this chapter and those in the
chapters on Diptera and Hymenoptera were drawn by Mr.
Pettit.

I wish also to acknowledge the help of my Assistant Mr.
A. D. MacGillivray, to whom I am indebted for much aid in
bibliographical researches and in many other ways; also,
that of Dr. A. C. White of the Cornell University Library,
who has generously given much time to determining the
etymologies of many of the more obscure words the pro-
nunciations of which are indicated in the text.

PREFACE. Vll

To the authorities of Cornell University the authors of
this book are under deep obligation for aid and encourage-
ment. The preparation of the work would not have been
possible but for the liberal grants which they have made for
the purchase of specimens and books.

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK.

ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY,

CORNELL UNIVERSITY,

December, 1894.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Zoological Classification and Zoological Nomenclature... i
II. Insects and their Near Relatives : Branch ARTHROPODA ;
Class CRUSTACEA, Crabs, Lobsters, Cra\ fish, and
Others; Class ARACHNIDA, Spiders, Scorpions, Mites,
and Others; and Class MYRIAPODA, Centipedes and
M illipedes 9

III. Class HEXAPODA or Insects: Characteristics of the Class;

Metamorphoses of Insects ; External Anatomy of In-
sects ; Internal Anatomy of Insects; Table for Deter-
mining the Orders of Insects; List of the Orders of
Insects 48

IV. Order THYSANURA, Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish-

moths, and Others. 82

V. Order EPHEMERIDA, May-flies 86

VI. Order ODONATA, Dragon-flies .... 89

VII. Order PLECOPTERA, Stone-flies 93

VIII. Order ISOPTERA, Termites or White-ants 95

IX. Order CoRRODENTIA, Book-lice and Others 98

X. Order MALLOPHAGA, Bird-lice 100

XI. Order DERMAPTERA Earwigs 102

XII. Order ORTHOPTERA, Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshop-
pers, Locusts, and Others 104

XIII. Order PHYSOPODA, Thrips 119

XIV. Order HEMIPTERA, Bugs, Plant-lice, Bark-lice, and

Others 121

XV. Order NEUROPTERA, the Dobson and Others 175

XVI. Order MECAPTERA, Scorpion-flies 184

XVII. Order TRICHOPTERA. Caddice-flies 186

XVIII. Order LEPIDOPTERA, Moths, Skippers, and Butterflies.. 191

XIX. Order DIPTERA, Flies 4'3

XX. Order SIPHONAPTERA, Fleas 490

XXI. Order COLEOPTERA, Beetles 494

XXII. Order HYMENOPTERA Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Others.. 599

INDEX AND GLOSSARY 679

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE I. (FRONTISPIECE.)

PAGB

FIGURE

1. The Carpet Beetle 539

2. The Twelve-spotted Diabrotica 577

3. The Adalia bipunctata 535

4. The Silver-spotted Skipper 370

5. The American Copper 39

6. The Red Admiral 401

7. The Painted Beauty 401

PLATE II. (PAGE 68 )

THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A CATERPILLAR.

PLATE III. (PAGE 70.)
THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A COCKROACH.

PLATE IV. (PAGE 343-)

PSEUDOHAZIS HERA.

PLATE V. (PAGE 353.)

FIGURE PAGE

1. The Luna Moth 353

2. The Crinkled Flannel-moth 218

PLATE VI. (PAGE 389.)

1. The Spring Azure 391

2. The Green Comma 44

3. The Hop-merchant. 45

4. The Banded Flfin 393

5. The Mourning-cloak 43

6. The Olive Hair-streak 393

7. The Spring Azure 39 1

8. The Violet Tip 45

xi

A MANUAL FOR

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

CHAPTER I.

*

ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.

I. Zoological Classification.

(For advanced students. )

IN order that the myriad forms of animals may be studied with
facility some system of classification is necessary. And now that we
have learned that there exists a blood-relationship between the differ-
ent kinds of animals, that system which most clearly expresses this
relationship is doubtless the best. This system is termed the Natural
Classification.

It is now generally believed that long ago, in early geological
times, there existed on the earth only very simple animals and plants:
and that from these simple beginnings more and more complex forms
have been developed. This growth in complexity has taken place in
different descendants of these simple primitive beings in very differ-
ent ways. Thus while it is probable that the first animals lived in
water, and very many still do so, others have become adapted to life
on the land, and in still others organs have been developed by which
they can fly through the air. And under each of these conditions we
find a great diversity of norms, each fitted for some special mode ol

Ufe.

3

2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The diversity of forms of animal life is much greater than is com
monly supposed. A competent authority has estimated that there
are now living on the earth more than one million species of animals.
And these are merely the surviving descendants of immense series
of beings that have existed in past geological times, the remaining
tips of a great genealogical tree, of which many twigs and branches
have perished.

The common figurative use of the word tree in this connection
expresses well the convergence of the lines of descent toward the
common ancestor from which existing forms have descended. But
in one respect it may be misleading. If an ordinary tree be ex-
amined, the tip of one branch will closely resemble that of any other
branch of the same tree. But in this figurative genealogical tree
we must imagine a very different state of affairs. Here the law of
growth is constant change; each branch grows in its own individual
way: and each twig of each branch bears fruit peculiar to itself.
The changes, however, are gradual ; and thus the tips of closely-con-
n!-ct(d twigs will be similar though not identical; while the tips of
two branches that separated early in the growth of the tree will be
very different.

It is the effort of the systematist, one who studies the classification
of animals and plants, to work out the relations which exist between
the various tips of the genealogical tree. This study when carried
to its fullest extent includes not only the study of existing forms of
life, but also the study of those that have perished, the trunk-forms
from which existing forms have descended. This, however, is a very
difficult matter; and as yet only the beginnings of the Natural
Classification have been made. See pp. 199 to 204.

If we accept this theory of descent, now almost universally ac-
cepted by naturalists, it is evident that when we take into account
ail the forms of life that have existed we cannot classify animals into
well-marked groups; for as the modification in form is gradual, series
of connecting links have existed between any two forms that might
be selected.

But practically the student that confines his attention to the
study of living forms can classify these forms into more or less well-
marked groups, for many of the connecting links have perished; in
fact, the groups of living animals and plants are so distinct that it is
only in recent years that naturalists have come to understand the
blood-relationship referred to above.

We find that the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms ae made up oi
a vast assemblage of individuals^ each the offspring cf parents similar

ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. %

to itself, and each in turn producing similar offspring. Although the
offspring is never exactly like either parent, the degree of variation in
a single generation is slight. And thus we find that there exist large
numbers of individuals which very closely resemble ^ach other. Such
collection of individuals is termed in popular language a .IVd, in
scientific language a species. Thus the kind of pine trees kn wn as
pitch-pine is a species; and scrub-pine, still another. In the same
way the name sparrow-hawk indicates a kind or species of hav/I*.; and
pigeon-hawk, another species.

Roughly speaking, a species is a collection of individuals which
resemble each other as closely as the offspring of a single
parent. For example, if any two pitch-pines be studied, nothing will
be found to indicate that they may not have sprung from seeds
grown upon the same tree. On the other hand, if a pitch-pine and
d. white-pine be carefully compared, they will be found so different
that no competent observer would believe that they had a common
parent.

Unfortunately this mode jf defining the limits of a species cannot
be depended upon. Many instances are known where forms of
animals or plants living in widely-separated regions differ so greatly
that they have been considered distinct species until more extended
collections in the intermediate regions have brought to light series
of intermediate forms, which connect the two so-called species so
closely that it is impossible to say where the one ends and the other
begins.

The only definite way of determining whether two forms are
specifically distinct is to determine whether they naturally interbreed
or not. We find among wild animals a sort of race prejudice which
keeps the members of different species from pairing, although they
may do so when demoralized by domestication. Except in the case
of very-closely-allied species, the pairing of individuals of different
species results in no. offspring or in the production of sterile offspring.

This grouping of individuals into species not only facilitates our
study of Natural History, but expresses certain important facts of
inheritance and reproduction. A second and somewhat similar step
is made by grouping species into genera.

We find that there exist groups of closely-allied species, species
that resemble each other in all of the more important characters, ana
differ among themselves only in what are known as the specific
characters. Such a group of species is termed a. genus. Thus all the
different species of pine taken together constitute the genus pine, or
Finns, as it is termed by botanists. There are many specie* oi oak,

4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

as red-oak, live-oak, and water-oak. All of the species of oak taken
together constitute the genus Quercus of botanists. Several species
of hawks and falcons are classed together by zoologists as the genus
Falco.

The genera in turn are grouped into families. Thus the pines,
the spruces, and the larches resemble each other quite closely, and
are classed together as the Pine Family (Abietinece) ; the falcons,
hawks, kites, and eagles are classed together as the Falcon Family
(FalconidcE).

Closely-allied families are grouped together to form orders. The
Pine Family, the Cypress Family, and the Yew Family comprise the
Order Conifera-, or cone-bearing plants, of botanists. The Owl Fam-
ily (Strigidtz), the Falcon Family (Falconzdce),a.nA the Vulture Family
(Vulturida) constitute the Order Raptorcs, or Birds of Prey.

Closely-allied orders are grouped together to form classes. Thus
all the orders of birds taken together constiiute the Class Aves or
Birds.

The classes are grouped into branches, which are the principal
divisions of the Animal Kingdom.* In studying the different forms
of animals it is found that there are several distinct types of structure.
Some animals are built upon one plan or structure, and others on
other plans. All animals built on the same plan are said to belong to
the same Branch. Thus the back-boned animals comprise the Branch
Vertebrata ; the clams, oysters, snails, cuttle fish, and certain other
allied forms comprise the Branch Mollusca ; and the insects, spiders,
centipedes, lobsters, and their near relatives comprise the Branch
Arthropoda.

All the branches of animals taken together constitute the Animal
Kingdom.

It is not possible to lay down rules by which these different groups
of animals can be limited. For, as has been shown in our discussion
of species, all have been connected in past time by intermediate forms t
But notwithstanding this, each of the terms given above (Branch,
Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species) expresses a pretty definite
conception, which the student will learn to comprehend by practice
in classifying animals. But the sequence in rank of these groups
should be learned at the outset. Beginning with the most compre-
hensive it is as follows :

* The principal divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom are not termed
Branches ; hence we will not make further use of botanical illustrations in
this connection.

ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 5

Animal Kingdom.

Branch or Subkingdom.
Class.
Order.
Family.
Genus.
Species.
Individual.

It is sometime desirable to indicate other groups than those named
above. Thus a family may be divided into subfamilies, or an order
into suborders. And occasionally an even more minute division is
made. Thus several closely-allied families may be grouped together
as a superfamily, a group of lower rank than a suborder. The follow-
ing table includes all the grades of groups now commonly employed :

Kingdom.

Branch or Subkingdom.
Class.
Subclass.
Superorder.
Order.
Suborder.
Superfamily.
Family.
Subfamily.
Genus.
Subgenus.
Species.
Subspecies.
Variety.
Individual.

II. Zoological Nomenclature.

(For advanced sfttdents.}

At the beginning of his studies of Natural History the student is
met with what is to him a new and strange set of names. These
names are often long. In form they belong to a dead language, with
which, in these days, even many educated people are unfamiliar. It.
is not strange that we often hear complaint respecting the difficulty of
this nomenclature.

O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

A little study of the matter, however, is sufficient to show the
necessity for scientific names. The common names of animals will
not answer our purpose ; for the same name is often applied to widely
different animals in different localities, while a single species of animal
is known by totally different names indifferent sections of the country,,

In order that information respecting animals may be recorded so
that there need not be any doubt regarding the animal to which refer-
ence is made, it is necessary that each species or group of species
should have a distinct name by which it shall be known by naturalists
in all parts of the world. Therefore, to each branch, class, order,
family, genus, and species which has been described there has been
given a special name, by which it is known, and which pertains to this
group alone.

As this nomenclature is used by all naturalists of whatever nation-
ality, it is necessary that the names should be in a language which
can be understood by all. As Latin was the language in which most
scientific books were written at the time this nomenclature was estab-
lished, that language was chosen as the universal language of science;
and the rule has been adopted that all names of animals and plants
shall be Latin, or Latin in form.

The name of a species consists of two words the name of the
genus to which the species belongs, followed by an adjective indicat-
ing the particular species ; for in Latin an adjective follows the noun
which it qualifies, instead of preceding it as in English. Thus the
scientific name of the Pigeon- hawk is Falco columbarius; that of the
S|> irrow-hawk is Falco sparvcrius ; and that of the Prairie-falcon is
Falco mexicanus.

In the case of many species we find well-marked subspecies or
geographical races which it is desirable to distinguish by name. Thus
the Pigeon-hawk occurs over the whole of North America. But we
find that those that live in the northwest coast region extending from
California to Sitka, constitute a distinct geographical race known as
the Black Merlin. As the Black Merlin and the typical Pigeon-hawk
intergrade, they constitute a single species, which is known as Falco
columbarius. To the Black Merlin has been applied the subspecific
nani.' sitckleyi. When, therefore, it is desired to refer to the Black
Merlin as distinguished from the typical Pigeon-hawk the term
Falco columbarius suckleyi is used. If reference is to be made to the
typical Pigeon-hawk as distinguished from the Black Merlin, it is
designated as Falco columbarius columbarius.

In writing long names like those given above they are frequently

ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. /

abbreviated if the context is such that the abbreviations will be read-
ily understood. Thus the name of the Black Merlin may be written
Falco c. sitckleyi or F. c. suckleyi.

Subspecitic names are used by entomologists not only to distinguish
geographical races, but also to distinguish the different forms of
dimorphic and polymorphic species. A good illustration is afforded
bv a certain species of Swallow-tail Butterfly common in the Atlantic
States. This species exists under two distinct forms ; one of these is
yellow marked with black, and has long been known as Jasoniades
turnns ; the other is almost entirely black, and has been known as
Jasoniades glaucus. At first it was supposed that these were different
species ; but in recent years the two forms have been bred from eggs
laid by the same female. It is thus evident that the two forms repre-
sent a single species. And as the form glaucus was first described its
name is given to the species, which is now known as Jasoniades
glaucus. This name Jasoniades glaucus is used when reference is
made to the species as a whole. But if one wishes to refer to the
black form alone.it is distinguished as Jasoniades glaucus glaucus ;
while the yellow form is distinguished as Jasoniades glaucus turnus.

In the illustrations just given the dimorphism occurs in the same
generation. But many instances are known where the dimorphism is
seasonal. Thus in the case of certain insects which pass through two
or more generations in the course of a year, the different generations,
or some of them, differ markedly in form or coloring from the others.
These differences in many cases are so great that the different genera-
tions of the same species were believed to be distinct species till they
were bred from each other. It is therefore often desirable to distin-
guish these different forms by subspecific names. Thus iphiclides
ajax is a species of Swallow-tail Butterfly which exists under three
distinct seasonal forms: an early spring form, /. ajax marcellus ; a
late spring form, 7. ajax telamonides ; and a summer form, /. ajax

ajax.

The name of a genus or of a subgenus is always a single word,
and should be a noun in the singular number and nominative case.

The names of all groups of genera (i.e., families, orders, classes,
and branches) consist each of a single word ; and this word should
be a plural noun in the nominative case.

The following practices regarding the forms of zoological names
are now almost universally followed :

The names of all groups in zoology, from kingdom to subgenus
inclusive, are written and printed with a capital initial letter.

8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Specific and subspecific names are written and printed with a small
initial letter. Thus in writing the name of a species the generic
name is capitalized, the specific name not ; e.g., Jphiclides ajax.

The names of families end in idee ; the names of subfamilies, in
ince.

It will aid the student greatly in the pronunciation of family and
subfamily names to know that the /of -idee in family names is short,
and consequently the accent falls on the syllable preceding this
letter ; while the / of -z'nce of subfamily names is long, and is conse-
quently accented.* Numerous examples are given in the following
Pages.

* This in accordance with the rule of Latin grammar that in words of more
than two syllables the penult if long is accented; but if the penult is short the
accent falls on the antepenulu

CHAPTER II.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES.

Branch ARTHROPODA (Ar-throp'o-da).
The Arthropods (Ar'tJiro-pods).

If an insect, a spider, a scorpion, a centipede, or a lobster
be examined, the body will W found to be composed of a
series of more or less similar riiigs or seg-
ments joined together; ai.d some of these
segments will be fcund to bear jointed
legs (Fig. i). All the animals possessing
these characteristics are classed together
as the Branch Artliropoda.

A similar segmented form of the body
is found among \vorms; but these are dis-
tinguished from the Arthropods by the
absence of legs. It -hould be remembered
that many animals commonly called worms,
as the tomato-worm, apple-worm, etc., are
not true worms, but are the larvae of in-
sects (Fig. 2). The angle-worm is the
most familiar example of a true worm.

The Branch Arthropoda is the largest
of the branches of the Animal Kingdom,
including many more known species than ail the other
branches taken together. Our common representatives are
distributed among four classes : these are the Crustacea,
the Arachnida, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda. The

9

FIG. i. An insect show-
ing segmented form of
body.

IO THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

first three classes are briefly discussed in this chapter ; the
fourth comprises the Insects, and is the subject of the
remaining parts of this book.

FIG. 2. A larva of an insect.

The following table will enable the student to distin-
guish the classes of the Arthropoda.*

TABLE OF CLASSES OF THE ARTHROPODA.

A. With two pairs of antennae and at least five pairs of legs. Aquatic
animals breathing by gills, p. 11 .CRUSTACEA.

AA. With one pair of antennae or with none. Air-breathing ani-
mals. The number of legs varies from six to many.

*The following is the method of using the analytical tables given in this
book: Read carefully the statement of characteristics given opposite A and
AA respectively, and by examining the animal to be classified determine
which is true of this animal. This will indicate in which division of the
table the name of the group to which the animal belongs is to be looked for.
If this division of the table is subdivided, pass to B and BB (also to BBB if
it occurs) in this division and determine in a like manner under which the
animal belongs. Continue in this way, passing to the letters C, D, E, etc., in
regular order till the name of the group is reached. Then turn to the page
indicated and read the description or the group given there, comparing the
specimens with the description. It should be borne in mind that an analyt-
ical table is merely an aid to the determination of groups. As the groups that
we recognize are not always sharply limited in nature, we cannot expect to
be able in every case to find characters that will serve to distinctly separate
them in a table. Therefore when a student has determined by the aid ot a
key to what group a species seems to belong, he should verify this determi-
nation by a study of the characters of that group given in the detailed dis-
cussion of it.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. II

B. Without antennae and with four pairs of legs, although the
maxillary palpi are often leg-like in form, making the animal

appear to have five pairs of legs. p. 12 ARACHNIDA.

BB. With antennae.
C. With more than three pairs of legs; and without wings, p.

45 MYRIAPODA.

CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings in
the adult state, p.48 HEXAPODA,

Class CRUSTACEA (Crus-ta'ce-a).
The Crustaceans (Crus-ta' ce-ans).

The members of this class are aquatic Arthropoda, which
breathe by true gills. They have two pairs of ant entice and at
least five pairs of legs.

The most familiar illustrations of the Crustacea are
Cray-fishes, the Lobsters,
the Shrimps, and the
Crabs. Cray-fishes (Fig. 3)
abound in our brooks, and
are often improperly called
Crabs. The Lobsters, the
Shrimps, and the true ^
Crabs live in salt water.

The Crustaceans are
distinguished from all oth-
er Arthropods by their
mode of respiration, being
the only ones that breathe
by true gills. Many in-
sects live in water, and
are furnished with gill-like

FIG. 3 A Cray-fish.

organs ; but these are

tracheal gills, organs which differ essentially in structure
from true gills, as described later, in the chapter on Anat-
omy of Insects. The Crustacea also differ from other
Arthropoda in having two pairs of antennae; and from all

12 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

except the Myriapoda in having many (more than four)

pairs of legs.

The illustrations named above are the more conspicuous

members of the class ; but many
other smaller forms abound both in
the sea and in fresh water. Some of
the more minute fresh-water forms
are almost sure to occur in any fresh-

FIG. 4. Crustacea : a. Cypris: t,

Cyclops; c, Daphnia. water aquarium. In rigure 4 are

represented three of these, greatly enlarged.

Among the Crustacea that live in damp places on land
the Sow-bugs, Oniscidce (O-nis'ci-dae), are most often-
seen. These frequently occur about water-soaked
wood; and are often mistaken, by students begin-
ning the study of Entomology, for insects or Myria-
pods. Figure 5 represents a Sow-bug.

On the sea-coast an immense number of forms
of Crustacea occur.

Class ARACHNIDA (A-rach'ni-da).
Scorpions, Harvestmen, Spiders, Mites, and others.

The members of this class are air-breathing Arthropods, in
which the head and thorax are grown together, forming a
cephalothorax, which have four pairs of legs fitted for ivalk-
ing, and which have no feeler-like antenna.

The Arachnida abound wherever insects occur, and are
often mistaken for insects. But they can be easily distin-
guished by the characters given above, even in those cases
where an exception occurs to some one of them. The more
important of the exceptions are the following : In the Sol-
pugida the head is distinct from the thorax ; as a rule the
young of mites have only six legs, but a fourth pair are
added during growth ; and in the gall mites (Phytoptus) there
are only four legs.

In the Arachnida we find only simple eyes.

The cephalothorax (ceph-a-lo-tho'rax) bears six pairs of

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES.

FIG. 6. Lower side of
cephalothorax of a
spider : md, man-
dible; w.r, maxilla;
/, palpus ; I, lower
lip ; j, sternum.

appendages two pairs of jaws, and four pairs of legs. The
first pair of jaws are the mandibles (man'di-bles), the second,
the maxilla (max-il'lse).

The mandibles (Fig. 6, md) lie in front of and above the
mouth, and consist each of two or three segments. They
serve for seizing prey, and often also for
killing it. In many books they are termed
the chelicerce (che-lic'e-rae).

The maxilla (Fig. 6, nix) lie just behind
the mandibles, one on each side of the
mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler
or palpus (Fig. 6, /). These palpi vary
greatly in form ; frequently they resemble
legs; hence many Arachnida appear to
have five pairs of legs. The palpi are often
so largely developed that each maxilla ap-
pears to be merely the first segment of its
leg-like palpus. These appendages are often

called the pedipalpi (ped-i-pal'pi). But as the
name Pedipalpi is applied to one of the or-
ders of the Arachnida, we will call these ap-
pendages the palpi.

The legs of Arachnida consist typically of
seven parts (Fig. 7), which are named, begin-
ning with the one next to the body, as fol-
lows : i, coxa (cox'a) ; 2, trocJianter (tro-chan'-
ter) ; ^ femur (fe'mur); 4, patella (pa-tel'la);
5, tibia (tib'i-a) ; 6, metatarsus (met-a-tar'sus) ;
and 7, tarsus (tar'sus). The tarsus may be composed of
several segments, and is usually furnished with claws.

Two forms of breathing organs are found in this class :
one, tracheae, resembling the tracheae of insects, described
in the chapter on the anatomy of insects ; and the other,
tracheal lungs or lung sacs, which consist of many leaf-like
plates enclosed in a sac. Both forms open by paired spira-
cles, which are usually situated on the lower side of some of
the abdominal segments.

FIG. 7. Leg: of a
spider.

14 'THR STUDY OF INSECTS.

Very great differences exist in the several orders of the
Arachnida in respect to the division of the body into seg-
ments. In arranging the orders in a series, we place first
those in which the segments of the body are most distinctly
indicated, while those which seem to depart more widely
from the segmented type characteristic of the Arthropoda
are placed later.

The class Arachnida includes seven orders ; these are
designated as follows :

The Scorpions, Order SCORPIONIDA (p. 15).

The Jointed Spiders, Order SOLPUGIDA (p. 16).

The Pseudoscorpions, Order PSEUDOSCORPIONES (p. 17).

The Whip-scorpions, Order PEDIPALPI (p. 17).

The Harvestmen, Order PHALANGIDEA(p. 19).

The Spiders, Order ARANEIDA (p. 20).

The Mites, Order ACARINA (p. 42).

TABLE OF THE ORDERS OF THE ARACHNIDA.

A. Abdomen distinctly segmented.
B. Abdomen with a tail-like prolongation.

C. Tail stout and armed with a sting at the end ; first pair of legs
/iot greatly elongated ; a pair of comb-like appendages on the
lower side of the second abdominal segment in the adult.

(Scorpions.} p. 15 SCORPIONIDA.

CC. Tail slender, whip-lash like, without sting; first pair of legs
much longer than the others ; without comb-like appendages
on abdomen. (Whip-scorpions^) (Thelyphonidce.) p. 17.

PEDIPALPI.
BB. Abdomen without a tail-like prolongation.

C. Palpi with pincer-like claws. (Pseudoscorpions.') p. 17.

PSEUDOSCORPIONES.
CC. Palpi without pincer-like claws.

D. Abdomen joined to the thorax by a slender stalk; front
legs greatly elongated and with whip-lash-like tarsi. (Whip-
scorpions.') (P/irym'dce.) p. 17 PEDIPALPI.

DD. Abdomen broadly joined to the thorax.
E. Legs usually very long and slender; thorax not dis-
tinctly divided into three segments. (Harvestmen!) p. 19.

PHALANGIDEA.

EE. Legs moderately long; head distinct from thorax ; thorax
distinctly divided into three segments, p. 16. SoLPUGIPA-

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 15

AA. Abdomen unsegmented.
B. Abdomen joined to the cephalothorax bya short, narrow stalk.

(Spiders.) p. 20 ARANEIDA.

EB. Abdomen fused with the cephalothorax. (Mites.) p. 42.

ACARINA.

Order SCORPIONIDA (Scor-pi-on'i-da).

The Scorpions.

With the scorpions (Fig. 8), the body is divided into a
compact, unsegmented cephalothorax, and a long, segmented
abdomen. The abdomen is divided
into two portions : a broad pre-abdo-
men, consisting of seven segments ;
and a slenderer tail-like division, the
post-abdomen, consisting of five seg-
ments. At the end of the post-abdo-
men there is a large poison-sting,
which appears like a segment. The
mandibles and the palpi are provided
with j.incers. As the palpi are very
large, with stout pincers, they resem-
ble in a striking manner the great claws
of lobsters. The cephalothorax bears
from three to six pairs of eyes. Scor-
pions breathe by means of lung sacs,
of which there are four pairs, opening
on the lower side of the third to the
sixth abdominal segments.

Full-grown scorpions possess a pair ot comb-like organs
on the lower side of the second abdominal segment. The
function of these organs is not yet known.

The sexes of scorpions differ in that the male has
broader pincers and a longer post-abdomen. Scorpions do
not lay eggs, the young being developed within the mother.
After the birth of the young, the mother apparently shows
great regard for them, carrying them about with her for

FIG. 8. A Scorpion.

i6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

some time, attached by their pincers to all portions of her

body.

Scorpions live in warm countries. They are common in
the southern portion of the United States, but are not found
in the North. They are nocturnal, remaining concealed dur-
ing the day, but leaving their hiding-places at dusk. When
they run the post-abdomen is bent upwards over the back.
They feed upon spiders and large insects, which they seize
with the large pincers of their palpi, and sting to death with
their caudal poison sting.

The sting of a scorpion rarely if ever proves fatal to man,
although the larger species, which occur in the Tropics, pro-
duce serious wounds.

Nearly twenty species are known from North America.

Order SOLPUGIDA (Sol-pu'gi-da).

The Jointed Spiders.

The members of this order differ from all other Arach-
nida in having the head separate from the thorax, and in

having the thorax composed of
three distinct segments, as with
insects. The mandibles are very
large, and are furnished with
strong pincers. The palpi are
shaped like the legs, and are said
to be used in locomotion. The
first of the four pairs of true legs,
like the palpi, are not furnished
with claws, and are used as palpi.
There are only two eyes. Respi-
ration is effected by means of
trachese, which open through three

FJG. o. A Jointed-spider, Datames ... . , . ,1

diiatata. (After Putnam.) pairs of spiracles, situated in the

first thoracic and the second and third abdominal segments.

Only a few species of Solpugida occur in the United

States, and specimens of these are rarely found. So far

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR KKLATIVES. IJ

as is known, our species are nocturnal, remaining con-
cealed during the day. They prey upon small insects, and
are believed to be harmless. Figure 9 will serve to show
the appearance of these curious animals. The popular
name, jointed-spiders, is suggested by the segmented con-
dition of the abdomen.

Order PSEUDOSCORPIONES (Pseu-do-scor-pi'o-nes.)

The Pseudoscorpions.

The pseudoscorpions (Fig. 10) are small Arachnida,
which resemble scorpions in the form of their body, except
that the hinder part of the abdomen is not nar-
row, as is the post-abdomen of scorpions, and
they have no caudal poison-sting. The abdo-
men is broad, flat, and composed of eleven
segments, or in some cases of only ten.

The pseudoscorpions possess only one or
two pairs of eyes, and in some, eyes are want-

, - . FIG. io. A Pseu-

ing. 1 hey breathe by means or tracheae, doscorpion.
which open through two pairs of spiracles on the lower side
of the second and third abdominal segments.

These little scorpion-like creatures live under stones, be-
neath the bark of trees, in moss, and in the dwellings of man,
between the leaves of books, etc. They run rapidly, side-
wise and backwards ; and feed on mites and small insects.
They are often found attached to insects, especially to flies;
but they probably do not feed on these large insects, but
merely use them as means of rapid locomotion.

The pseudoscorpions occur in the Northern States as
well in the South.

Order PEDIPALPI (Ped-i-pal'pi).
The Whip-scorpions.

These strange creatures are found only in the extreme
iouthern part of our country, being tropical animals. In

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

their general form they have some resemblance to scor-
pions. They can be easily distinguished by the form of
the front legs, which are greatly elongated, and have the
tarsi broken up into many small segments; this gives these
legs a more or less whip-lash-like appearance. In one
family the abdomen also bears a whip-lash-like appendage.
The mandibles are furnished with claws; the palpi are
very large and armed with strong spines, and the abdomen
is distinctly separated from the thorax. The order includes
two families, both of which are represented in the United
States.

Family THELYPHONID^E (Thel-y-phon'i-dae).
The Tail Whip-scorpions.

This family is represented in the United States by

only a single species, the
Giant Whip- scorpion,
Thelyphonus gigantens
(The-lyph'o-nus gi-gan
te'us). This species
measures when full
grown from four to five
inches in length. Figure
4 1 1 represents one less
than natural size. These
whip-scorpions are great-
ly feared on account of
their supposed venomous
powers, but it is prob-
able that there is no
foundation for this fear.
Although it has been
stated often that their
bites are poisonous, we
FIG. \\.-Tkeiypkonus giganteus. can find no direct evi-

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. IQ

dence that it is so. They destroy their prey by crushing it
with their palpi.

Family PHRYNID^; (Phryn'i-dae).
The Tailless Whip-scorpions.

This family is represented in our fauna by the genus
Phrymis (Phry'nus), the members of which are smaller than
the Giant Whip-scorpion. In this family the front legs
are even more whip-lash-like than in the preceding family ;
the whole body is relatively shorter and broader; the
abdomen is joined to the thorax by a slender stalk, and
the tail-like appendage is lacking.

Order PHALANGIDEA (Phal-an-gid'e-a).
TJie Harvestmen, or Daddy Long Legs.

The Harvestmen are very common in most parts of
the United States. They are well known to children in
this country under the name Daddy Long Legs, but as this
name is also sometimes applied to Crane-flies, Harvestmen
is preferable. In some sections of the country the Har-
vestmen are known as Grandfather Graybeards.

Most Harvestmen can be recognized by their very long
and slender legs (Fig. 12), although some species have

FIG. 12. The Striped Harvestman.

comparatively short ones. The cephalothorax is indistinctly
if at all segmented. The abdomen is short, broad, consists

2O THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

of six segments, and is without a tail-like appendage ; it
is broadly joined to the cephalothorax.

The eyes of the Harvestmen are two in number, and
are situated on a prominent tubercle near the middle of
the cephalothorax. The mandibles are pincer-like. The
maxillae are large, and so opposed as to act as jaws; their
palpi are four-jointed, and are small compared with the palpi
of the preceding orders; they resemble in form and func-
tion the palpi of insects. The members of this order
breathe by tracheae, which open by a single pair of spir-
acles, on the lower side of the body at the junction of
the cephalothorax and abdomen.

The Harvestmen feed on small insects, especially Aphids,
and are perfectly harmless. They are said to devour their
prey, chewing it with their maxillae, and swallowing it,
instead of merely sucking out the blood, as do most other
Arachnida.

Although the Harvestmen have stilt-like legs, they do
not raise the body much above the ground when they
walk, but carry it quite near their feet, with the middle
part of their legs high in the air. They are said to pounce
upon their prey as does a cat upon a mouse, and seize
it with their palpi as if with hands.

It is a common practice with children to catch these
creatures and say to them, " Grandfather Graybeard, tell
me where the cows are, or I'll kill you." As the poor
frightened animal points its legs in all directions in its
frantic efforts to escape, it usually earns its freedom ; but
too often it is not without the loss of one or more legs.

Order ARANEIDA (Ar-a-ne'i-da).
The Spiders.

The Spiders differ from other Arachnida in having the
abdomen unsegmented and joined to the cephalothorax
by a short, narrow stalk. The cephalothorax is also un-

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES.

21

segmented ; and the abdomen bears at its end organs for
spinning silk (Fig. 13).

FIG. 13. Ftncetia viridans. (From the Author's Report on Cotton Insects.)

The mandibles (Fig. 14, md) consist of two segments,
a strong basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at
the tip of which a poison gland opens (Fig.
15). It is by means of these organs that
spiders kill their prey. The palpi are leg-
like in form, but differ greatly according
to sex. In the female the last segment of
the palpus resembles a foot of the spider,
and is usually armed with a well-developed
curved claw. But in the male the corre-
sponding segment is more or less enlarged,
and very complicated in structure (Fig. 16). FI O G /
The greater number of spiders have four
pairs of eyes (Fig. 17), but there may be fj p; p ^ sternum.' 01

FIG. 15. Tip of claw of FIG. 16. Maxilla and FIG. 17. Head of spider,
mandible of spider. palpus of male house- showing eyes and mandi-

spider. bles.

22 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

only one, two, or three pairs ; and certain cave spiders
are blind. Spiders breathe by means of lung-sacs, of which
there are one or two pairs ; and some have tracheae also.
The lung-sacs open on the lower side of the abdomen
near its base, and between them is the opening of the
reproductive organs. The tracheae open through a single
spiracle near the hind end of the body, just in front of the
spinning organs.

The spinning organs, which are situated near the end of
the abdomen, consist of two or three pairs of spinnerets.

These appendages (Fig. 18) are more
or less finger-like in form, and some-
times jointed. Upon the end of each
spinneret there are many small tubes,
the spinning tubes, from which the silk

F,,.. ,8 -End of abdomen of >S spun (Fig. 19). Some spiders have

as many as one hundred and fifty or
two hundred of these spinning-tubes
on each spinneret. The silk is in a

fluid state while it is within the body, but it hardens as
soon as it comes in contact with the air.

In addition to the many small spinning tubes, there are
a few larger ones, termed spigots. The ordinary thread is
spun from two or four of these. The small spinning
tubes are used in making attachment disks for fast-
ening threads in place, in making a swathing band
for enveloping prey, and, sometimes, in making a
broad, wavy band across the center of a web. We
have observed a spider seize a large grasshopper
which was entangled in its web, and, rolling it over enlar ^ ed -
two or three times, completely envelop it in a sheet of silk
spun from its spread-apart spinnerets.

In the construction of their web some spiders make
use of two kinds of silk. One of these is dry and inelastic ;
the other, viscid and elastic. This fact can be easily seen
by examining an orb-web. If the spiral line which forms

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 2$

the greater part of the web be touched, it will adhere to the
finger, and will stretch, when the finger is withdrawn, to
several times the original length. But if one of the radiat-
ing lines or a portion of the outer framework be touched, it
will neither adhere to the finger nor be stretched. If the
spiral line be examined with a lens, it will be found to bear
numerous bead like masses of viscid matter (Fig. 20); this
explains its adhesiveness.

It is supposed that the two kinds of silk are spun from
different spinnerets, and that the viscid silk comes from the
front pair. When this silk is first spun the viscid matter
forms a continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it. But
very soon this layer breaks up into the bead-like masses in
a way similar to that in which the moisture on a clothes-line
in a foggy day collects into drops.

Spiders of the two families Dictynidce and Uloboridce
have spinning organs differing from those of all other

FIG. 20. Viscid silk FIG. 21. Spinnerets of FIG. 22. Last two segments

from an orbweb. a Dictvuid spider. of hind leer of spider, show-

The middle pair of ing calanrstrum.
spinnerets are con-
cealed by the first
pair, c, cribellum.

spiders. They have i;i front of the usual spinnerets an
additional organ, which is named the cribellum (cri-bel'lum)
(Fig. 21). This bears spinning-tubes like the other spinner-
ets, but these tubes are much finer. These spiders have
also on the metatarsus of the hind legs one or two rows of
curved spines : this organ is the calamistrum (cal-a-mis'trum)
(Fig. 22). By means of the calamistrum these spiders comb
from the cribellum a band of loose threads, which forms
a part of their webs.

THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

Spiders make use of silk in the construction of their
webs or snares, in the building of tubes or tents within
which they live, in the formation of egg-sacs, and in loco-
motion.

Fig. 23 represents the large egg-sac of one of the orb-
weavers. This is made in the autumn, and contains at that

season a large number of eggs five hun-
dred or more. These eggs hatch early in
the winter; but no spiders emerge from
the egg-sac until the following spring. If
egg-sacs of this kind be opened at differ-
ent times during the winter, as was done
by Dr. Wilder, the spiders will be found
to increase in size but diminish in num-
ber as the season advances. In fact, a
strange tragedy goes on within these
egg-sacs: the stronger spiders calmly
devour their weaker brothers, and in
FIG. 23 ._Egg-sac of the spring those which survive emerge
(vKm' wiide'ro*'" sufficiently nourished to fight their bat-
tles in the outside world.

The egg-sacs of the different species of spiders vary

FIG. 24. Egg-sac of Nepkila plumfjes (From Wilder.)

greatly in form. In some, as in that figured above, the outer
covering is very dense, while in others the outer part con-

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 25

sists of loose flossy silk (Fig. 24). One of the most common
kinds is very flat, silvery in color, and is
firmly attached to stones lying upon the
ground (Fig 25)

Every on" knows that a spider wishing
to descend to some place beneath it simply
fastens a line to the object which it is
upon and then drops boldly off, regulat- FlG 25 ._ EK? . sac o a
ing the rate of its descent by spinning
the line rapidly or slowly ; when the spider wishes to return,
it has only to climb up the same line.

Frequently spiders pass from point to point in a hori-
zontal direction by means of silken bridges. These are
formed in this way : The spider spins out a thread, which is
carried off by a current in the air. After a time the thread
strikes some object and adheres to it ; then the spider pulls
the lin? tight, and fastens it where it is standing. It then
has a bridge, along which it can easily run.

But more remarkable than either of these uses of silk for
locomotion is the fact that many spiders are able to travel
long distances, hundreds of miles, through the air by means
of these silken threads

"sailing mid the golden air
In skiffs of yielding gossamere." (Hogg.)

The Aeronautic Spiders, or Flying Spiders, as they are
more commonly called, are frequently very abundant, espe-
cially in warm autumn days. At such times innumerable
threads can be seen streaming from fences, from bushes, and
the tips of stalks of grass, or floating through the air. The
flying spider climbs to some elevated point, which may be
merely the tip of a stalk of grass, and then, standing on the
tips of its feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out
a thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away by a
current of air. When the thread is long enough the force of
the air current on it is sufficient to buoy the spider up. It

2(3 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

then lets go its hold with its feet and sails away. That these
spiders travel long distances in this manner has been shown
by the fact that they have been seen floating through the
air at sea far from land.

Representatives of nearly thirty families of spiders have
been found in the United States. But some of these fami-
lies include only rare species, and others are represented by
so few species that we cannot discuss them here. The
greater number of our spiders belong to the eleven families
described below. The following table will aid the student
in separating these families.

TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF

SPIDERS.

A. Claw of the mandibles moving vertically ; four lung-slits present.

( Tarantulas) p. 27 THERAPHOSID.E.

AA. Claw of the mandibles moving horizontally; only two lung-slits
present, but with a single spiracle or a pair of spiracles also.
B. Eyes equal or nearly equal in size, and usually arranged in twc
rows.

C. Feet furnished with two claws (Fig. 28). Spiders which
do not spin webs for catching prey.
D. Second pair of legs not so long as the fourth pair.

E. Maxillae with a concavity or furrow (Fig. 29). Spiders

which live on the ground, p. 29 DRASSID/E.

EE. Maxillae convex (Fig. 32). Spiders which live chiefly in

silken tubes on bushes, p. 30 CLUBIONID^E.

DD. Second pair of legs as long as or longer than the fourth

pair. ( The crab-spiders.} p. 40 THOMISID^E.

CC. Feet furnished with three claws (Fig. 38). Spiders which
spin webs for catching prey.

D. The caudal pair of spinnerets very long, and two- jointed.
Spiders which make irregular webs with a tube or hiding-
place at one side, from which they run on the upper surface

of the web, to catch their prey. p. 30. ., AGALENID.<E.

DD. All of the spinnerets short.

E. With cribellum and calamistrum. Spiders making webs
in which there are curled threads, or double threads.

JNSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 2J

f. The side eyes not as far apart as the middle eyes; a
considerable space between the eyes and the front edge
of the head. Spiders making irregular webs. p. 32.

DlCTYNID^E.

FF. The side eyes as far or farther apart than the middle
eyes ; eyes very close to the front edge of the head.
Spiders making regular webs. (Uloborus.) p. 38.

ULOBORID^;.

EE. With neither cribellum nor calamistrum. Spiders mak-
ing webs in which there are no curled threads.
F. Eyes not near the front edge of the head, the space be-
tween the two being greater than that occupied by the
eyes (Fig. 37). Spiders that spin irregular webs, in or
near which they live, hanging back downwards, p. 34.

THERIDIID^E.

FF. Eyes near the front edge of the head, the space be-
tween the two being less than that occupied by the eyes
(Fig. 42). Spiders that make regular webs, consisting
chiefly of lines radiating from the centre, and a spiral or

looped sticky line. p. 35 EPEIRIDJE.

3B. The eyes unequal in size and arranged in three or four rows.
C. With cribellum and calamistrum. Spiders which make webs.

(Hypi ' totes?) p. 38 ULOBORID/E.

CC. With neither cribellum nor calamistrum. Spiders which do
not spin webs for catching prey.
D. The largest eyes not in the front row. (Running spiders?)

p. 40 LYCOSID^E.

DD. The largest eyes in the front row. {Jitinping spiders?)
p. 42 ATTID.E.

Family THERAPHOSID^K (Ther-a-phos'i-dae).
The Tarantulas and the Trap-door Spiders.

Those who live in the warmer parts of our country know
well the large spiders commonly called Tarantulas. These
are the giants among spiders, some of them being the largest
known ; but some species of this family are not very large.
They are dark-colored, hairy spiders, and can be distinguished
from the other families mentioned here by the fact that the

28

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

claw of the mandibles works up and down instead of side-
wise.

The members of this family do not construct true webs,
but they dig long tubes in the earth, which they line with
silk, or line their hiding-places in clefts in trees or elsewhere
with a layer of silk. They live only in warm countries.

One of the best known of the Tarantulas is Eurypelma
hentzii (Eu-ryp'el-ma hentz'i-i). This species occurs in the
South and in the Middle West, and is the largest of our
spiders (Fig. 26). Several closely allied species are found in
California.

FIG. 26. A Tarantula, Eurypelma hentzii.

But the members of this family that have attracted most
admiration on account of their habits are the Trap-door
Spiders. These dig a tube in the ground, as do many other
members of this family ; but this tube is lined with a denser

FIG. 27. Entrance to nest of a trap-door spider.

layer of silk, and is provided with a hinged lid, which fits
the opening of the tube with wonderful accuracy (Fig. 27).

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES.

2 9

The spider hides in this nest when not seeking its prey.
Some species take the precaution to build a branch to their
nest, and to provide this branch with a door. As this door
forms a part of one side of the main tube, it is not likely to
be observed by any creature which may find its way past the
first door of the nest.

Several species of Trap-door Spiders occur in the South-
ern and Southwestern States.

Family DRASSID^E (Dras'si-dae).
Tlic Drctssids, or Tube Weavers in part.

There are certain dark-colored spiders that spin no web,
but wander about at night in search of prey, and hide under
leaves and stones during the day-time. Many of them make
silken tubes, in which they hide in winter or while moulting
laying eggs. Hence they have been termed Tube

or

Weavers, a name which is also applied to certain other
spiders. We will therefore call the members of this family
the Drassids (Dras'sids).

In this family the body is long, and is usually flattened
above. It is carried near the ground in walking. The legs
are rather short and stout ; the second pair are not longer
than the fourth, and the feet
are furnished with only two
claws (Fig. 28). The eyes are
in two nearly straight rows, and
the maxillae are
concave or fur-
nished with a
furrow (Fig. 29).

One of the
most common
species in the
East is Drassus saccatus (Dras'sus sac-ca'tus) (Fig. 30).
It lives under stones, in a large bag of silk, in which the

FIG. 28. Foot of
a Drassid.

FIG. 29. Maxilla
of a Drassid.

FIG. 30. Drassus
saccatus.

30 THE STUDY OF IN 'SECTS.

female stays with her egg-sac. In early summer a male and
female live together in the nest.

Family CLUBIONID^E (Clu-bi-on'i-dae).
The Clubionids, or Tube Weavers in part.

There may be found during summer, in flat tubular
nests on plants, usually in rolled leaves, spiders that spin

no webs to entrap their prey.
These spiders very closely re-
semble the Drassids in structure,
but are usually lighter in color,
with the legs a little longer and
more slender, and the abdomen
more nearly cylindrical (Fig. 31).
FiG.' 3 i.-c/w- FIG. 32-Maxiiia of They are also distinguished by

ona canadensis. a Clubionid. ,1 r r , i -11 i i

the form of the maxillae, which

are convex (Fig. 32). These spiders belong to the family
Clubionidas. As we have no appropriate common name
for these spiders, they may be called the Clnbionids (Clu-bi-
on'ids).

During the winter the Clubionids hide under bark or
stones, and make tubular nests in these places.

Family AGALENlDyE (Ag-a-len'i-dse).

The Funnel-web Weavers.

Even the most careful observers seldom realize what an
immense number of spider-webs are spun upon the grass in
the fields. But occasionally these webs are made visible
in the early morning by the dew which has condensed upon
them. At such times we may see the grass covered by an
almost continuous carpet of silk.

The greater number of the webs seen at such times are
of the form which we term funnel-webs. They consist of a
concave sheet of silk, with a funnel-shaped tube at one side,.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES.

and numerous lines extending in all directions to the sup-
porting spears of grass (Fig. 33). The tube serves as a

FIG. ^. Web of Grass Spider, Agalcna nirvia.

hiding-place for the owner of the web; from this retreat the
spider runs out on the upper surface of the web to seize any
insect that alights upon it. The tubes open below, near the
roots of the grass; so that the spider can escape from it if
a too formidable insect comes upon the web.

The funnel-web weavers (family Agalenidoe) are long-
legged, brown spiders, in which the head part of thecephalo-
thorax is higher than the thoracic part, and distinctly
separated from it by grooves or
marks at the sides. The eyes
are usually in two rows, but
in Agalena the middle eyes of
both rows are much higher than
the others. The feet have three claws. The posterior pair

FlG. 34. Agalena

3 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

of spinnerets are two-jointed, and usually longer than the
others.

The common grass spider, which abounds in all parts of
the United States, is Agalena ncevia (Ag-a-le'na nae'vi-a
(Fig. 34)-

Family DlCTYNID^: (Dic-tyn'i-dae).
The Curled-thread Weavers with Irregular Webs.

The Dictynids (Dic-tyn' ids).

Certain spiders are remarkable for using two kinds of
silk in the formation of their webs. Thus, as explained
later, the Orb Weavers build the framework of their orbs of
dry and inelastic threads, and attach to this framework a
thread which is sticky and elastic ; while most spiders which
make irregular webs use only one kind of silk. There are,
however, certain species of irregular web-weavers which use
two kinds of silk. One of these is a plain thread like that
spun by other spiders, and the other is a peculiar curled
thread or a delicate band of tissue in which there are curled
threads.

The curled-thread weavers represent two families, one
of which makes irregular webs; the other, those which are
of definite form. The first of these is the Dictynidte.

The curled -thread or tissue-like band is made in the
same way by both families. It is composed of silk spun
from a special spinning-organ, situated in front of the
ordinary spinnerets, and named the cribclliun (cri-bel'lum) ;
and is combed into its peculiar form by means of a comb of
stiff hairs, the calamistrum (cal-a-mis'trum), which is borne
by the metatarsus of the hind legs (see page 23). In mak-
ing the curled thread the spider turns one of its hind legs
under the abdomen so that the calamistrum is just under
the cribellum, and the foot rests on the ether hind leg. It
then moves its hind legs back and forth rapidly, so that the
calamistrum combs out from the spinning-tubes, and at the
same time tangles, a band of fine threads.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA TIVES.

33

This band of tangled or curled threads is easily seen in
the webs of these spiders, being wider than
the ordinary threads and white in color. In
old webs it becomes conspicuous by the large
amount of dust which it collects. Figure 35
shows the appearance of this band when
magnified, and the way in which it is attached
to the plain threads. larged '

Our more common Dictynids make webs of various
shapes, on fences, under stones, in holes in rotten logs, and

FIG. 35. Curled

Fie. 36. Web of a Dictynidj on a dead branch of Ceanothus, somewhat enlarged.

on plants. These webs are especially common among the

flowers of Golden-rod and other plants having clusters of
4

34 THE STUD V OF INSECTS.

small flowers (Fig. 36), and exhibit a slight degree of

regularity.

Family THERTDIID.E (Ther-i-di'i-dae).

The Cobiveb Weavers.

Many are the kinds of webs spun by different spiders.
Some of them, as the orb-webs and the funnel-webs, delight
us with their wonderful regularity of form ; while others
appear to be a mere shapeless maze of threads. Such are
the structures whose presence in the corners of our rooms
torment thrifty housewives, and which are disrespectfully
termed cobwebs.

The cobweb weavers (Family Theridiidfz) are small
spiders with unusually slim legs. The space between the
eyes and the front edge of the head is greater than the

FIG. 37. Face of FIG. 38. Foot of spider FIG. y^.Mimetus

house spider. with three claws. interfeclor.

region occupied by the eyes (Fig. 37); the eyes are in two
rows ; and the feet are furnished with three claws (Fig. 38).
This family includes many species, being in fact the largest
of all of the families of spiders. Figure 39 represents a
widely distributed species.

Although the house spiders are the most familiar mem-
bers of this family, the greater number of species spin their
webs in the fields on bushes. These webs usually consist of
a flat or curved sheet, under which the spider hangs back
downward. This sheet is supported by threads running in
all directions to the neighboring objects. Frequently there
is a large number of these supporting threads above the web,
which serve the additional purpose of impeding the flight of

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 35

insects, and causing them to fall into the web, where they
are caught.

Some of these spiders do not remain in their webs, but
have a nest in a neighboring crack or corner, from which
they rush to seize their prey. And sometimes there is a
funnel-shaped tube leading to this nest. But these spiders
differ from the true funnel web weavers in running back down-
wards on the lower side of their web.

Family EPEIRID^E (E-pei'ri-dae).
The Orb Weavers.

Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are
more wonderful than the nets of orb-weaving spiders, but
these beautiful objects are so common that they are often
considered hardly worthy of notice. If they occurred only
in some remote corner of the earth, every one would read of
them with interest.

The nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in
the details of their structure, but the general plan is quite
similar. There is first a framework of supporting lines. The
outer part of this framework is irregular, depending upon the
position of the objects to which the net is attached; but the
more central part is very regular, and consists of a number
of lines radiating from the center of the net (Fig. 41). All
of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic. . But there
is spun upon the radiating lines in a very regular manner a
thread which is sticky and elastic (Fig. 20, p. 23). Usually
this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines so as to
form a spiral, but a few species make nets in which this
thread is looped back and forth.

Many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spin-
ning a zigzag ribbon across the center. This ribbon is made
by spreading the spinnerets apart so that the minute threads
from the spinning tubes do not unite to make a single thread,
as is usually the case.

Some of the orb weavers live in their nets hanging head

3 6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

downwards, usually near the center of the net ; others have
a retreat near one edge of the net, in which they hang back

FIG. 41. Partially completed web of Epeira.

downwards. While resting in these retreats they keep hold
of some of the lines leading from the net, so that they can
instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect.

When an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of
the sticky line, the line sticks to it ; but it stretches so as to
allow the insect to become entangled in other turns of the
line. If it were not for this elasticity of the sticky line, most
insects could readily tear themselves away before the spider
had time to reach them.

In making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of
lines extending irregularly in various directions about the
place where its orb is to be. This is the outer supporting
framework. Often the first line spun is a bridge between
two quite distant points. This is done as described on p. 25.
Having a bridge across the place where the web is to be, it
is an easy matter for the spider to stretch its other lines
where it wishes them. In doing this it fastens a thread to
one point, and then walks along to some other point, spin-

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 37

ningthe thread as it goes, and holding it clear of the object
on which it is walking by means of one of its hind legs.
When the second point is reached the thread is pulled tight
and fastened in place.

After making the outer framework the radiating lines,
are formed. A line is stretched across the space so as to pass
through the point which is to be the center of the orb. In
doing this the spider may start on one side, and be forced to
walk in a very roundabout way on the outer framework to
the opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up behind
it as it goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with
the lines on which it walks; one or both hind feet serve as
hands in these spinning operations. The spider then goes
to the point where the centre of the orb is to be, and fast-
ening another line there, it walk back to the outer frame-
work, and attaches this line an inch or two from the first
In this way all of the radiating lines are drawn. The next
step is to stay these radii by a spiral line which is begun at
the center, and attached to each radius as it crosses it. The
turns of this spiral are as far apart as the spider can con-
veniently reach, except at the center of the web. All of the
threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web
are dry and inelastic. The spider now proceeds to stretch
upon this framework a sticky and elastic line, which is the
most important part of the web, the other lines being merely
a framework to support it. In spinning the sticky line the
spider begins at the outer edge of the orb, and passing
around it fastens this line to each radius as it goes. Thus a
second spiral is made. The turns of this spiral are placed
quite close together, and the first spiral, which is merely a
temporary support, is destroyed as the second spiral pro-
gresses. Figure 41 represents a web in which the second
spiral is made over the outer half of the radii. In this fig-
ure, aa represents the temporary stay-line ; bb, the sticky
spiral ; and cc, the fragments of the first spiral hanging from
the radii.

38

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FIG. 43. Foot of Epcira.

The orb weavers (Family
Epeiridce] are usually plump
spiders, the abdomen being
large, and often nearly spher-
ical. The space between the
eyes and front edge of the
head is less than the region

/-r^- \

occupied by the eyes (Fig. 42).
The eyes are arranged in two rows. The front legs are
longer than the others. The feet have three claws (Fig. 43),
and the spinnerets are all short. In some species of this
family the male is much smaller than the female.

Family ULOBORID/E (U-lo-bor'i-dae).

The Curled-thread Weavers with Regular Webs*

The Uloborids (U-lo-bo'rids).

We have already described the thread-curling habits of
the Dictynids (p. 32), and the curious organs called cribel-
lum and calamistrum (Fig. 44), by which these curled threads

are made (p. 23). Similar organs and
a similar habit are possessed by the spi-
ders of the family Uloboridce. These
spiders, however, make webs which are
FlG ' 44 'H?p a tio'fes trum f regular in form. There are only two
genera belonging to this family in the United States ; but
as the webs made by these are very different, we will de-
scribe both.

The Triangle Spider, Hyptiotes cavaius (Hyp-ti'o-tes ca-
va'tus). This spider is common all over New England and
the Middle States, and has been found as far to the south-
west as Texas. Its web is most often found stretched be-
tween the twigs of a dead branch of pine or spruce. At
first sight this web appears like a fragment of an orb web
(Fig. 45); but a little study will show that it is complete.
The accompanying figure, by Dr. Wilder, who first described

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 39

the habits of this spider (see Popular Science Monthly, 1875),
illustrates the form of the web. It consists of four plain
lines corresponding to the radiating lines of an orb web, and
a series of double cross lines,* which are spun by the cribel-
lum and calamistrum. From the point where the radiating
lines meet a strong line extends to one of the supporting
twigs. Near this twig the spider rests, pulling the web tight

FIG. 45. Web of Hyptiotes cavatus. (From Wilder.)

so that there is some loose line between its legs, as shown in
the enlarged figure. When an insect becomes entangled in
one of the cross lines, the spider suddenly lets go the loose
line so that the whole web springs forward, and the insect is
entangled in other cross threads. The spider then draws
the web tight and snaps it again. This may be repeated
several times before the spider goes out upon the web after
its prey.

Uloborus (U-lob'o-rus). The spiders of this genus make
round webs which resemble at first sight those of the Orb
Weavers ; but they differ from the ordinary orb webs in that

4O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the spiral thread is made of curled or hackled silk. These
webs are nearly horizontal, and are usually made between
stones or in low bushes. The spiders of this genus are not
common, but they are widely distributed. They have not,
however, been reported as yet from the Pacific coast.

Family THOMISID^; (Tho-mis'i-dae).

The Crab Spiders.

There are certain spiders which are called crab spiders,
on account of the short and broad form of the body, and
the curious fact that they can walk more readily sidewise or
backward than forward.

These spiders spin no webs, but lie in wait for their prey.
They live chiefly on plants and fences, and in the winter
hide in cracks and under stones and bark. Most of the spe-
cies are marked with gray and brown, like the bark upon
which they live. Some species conceal themselves in flow-
ers, where they lie in wait for their prey. These are brightly
colored, like the flowers they inhabit ; so that insects visiting
flowers may alight within reach of a spicier before seeing it.
In this family the legs are turned outward and forward
more than downward ; so that the body is carried close to
^ ie g roun d- The second pair of legs are as
long as or longer than the fourth pair. The
eyes are small, nearly equal in size, and ar-
ranged in two rows.

One of th e best-known members of this
family is the female of Misuuiena vatia (Mi-su'me-na va'ti-a).
This is milk-white, with sometimes a light crimson mark on
each side of the abdomen, and is found within flowers
(Fig. 46).

Family LYCOSID.E (Ly-cos'i-dae).

The Running Spiders.

Every collector of insects who has searched for speci-
mens under stones and logs is familiar with the large, dark-
Colored, hairy spiders often found in these places. These

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 4!

spiders frequently attract especial attention by dragging
after them a large gray ball (Fig. 47) ; this is the egg-sac,
which the female carries about with her attached to her
spinnerets. These spiders run swiftly ; and as they depend

FIG. 47. Lycosa and egg-sac.

on the use of their legs for the capture of their prey, they are
well termed Running Spiders.

These spiders resemble in general appearance and in
habits the Tarantulas of the South and the West. But none
of our species attain the great size of some of the Tarantulas,
and in the Running Spiders the claw of the mandibles
moves horizontally instead of vertically.

In this family the body is hairy and usually much longer
than broad. The eyes differ markedly in size, and are
arranged in three or four rows. The larger eyes are not in
the front row. The legs are rather long and quite stout.

Like the Tarantulas, some of the Running Spiders build
tubular nests in the ground,
which they line with silk. Some-
times the entrance to these nests
is concealed by small sticks and
leaves, and sometimes the spi-
der builds a regular turret over
the entrance of its tube (Fig. 48).
These nests are used merely as
retreats, the spiders wandering
forth in search of their prey.

The larger, members of our

Common species belong to the FIG 48 _ Entrance nest of Turre ,
genus Lycosa (Ly-co'sa). These s P' der ' ^ /. (After Marx.)
drag after them their egg-sacs as described above ; and

42 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

when the young hatch they climb on their mother's back,
and are carried about for a time. The females of the genus
Dolotnedcs (Dol-o-me'des), which also belongs to this family,
carry their egg-sac in their mandibles until the young are
ready to hatch. At this time the mother fastens the egg-
sac in a bush, and spins a web of irregular threads about it,
among which the young spiders remain for a time.

Family ATTID.E (At'ti-dae).
The Jumping Spiders.

The Jumping Spiders are of medium size, with a short body
and short stout legs (Fig. 49). They are common on plants,
logs, fences, and the sides of buildings. They
are very apt to attract attention by their pecul-
iar appearance ; their short stout legs, bright
colors, conspicuous eyes, and quick, jumping
movements being very different from those of
ordinary spiders.

The eyes are arranged in three or four rows ;
FIG tg Atttis the front middle pair are the largest, and are

nutilus. (From

't e or AU n h Cot* verv conspicuous. These self-possessed spiders
ton insects) are a bi e t o s tare an ordinary observer out of
countenance. They move sidewise or backward with great
ease, and can jump a long distance. They make no webs
except nests in which they hide in winter or when moulting
or laying eggs.

In certain members of this family the body is longer
than in the typical forms, and ant-like in appearance.

Order ACARINA (Ac-a-ri'na).
The Mites.

In this order the abdomen is unsegmented and fused
with the thorax, giving the entire body a more or less sac-
like appearance. In many the body is marked by numerous

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 43

transverse, fine lines, which are so impressed as to appear
like the divisions between minute segments (Fig. 52). The
majority of mites are very small ; but some, as certain Ticks,
are of considerable size.

With the exception of a single family the members of
which bring forth living young, all mites are produced from
eggs. As a rule, the newly-hatched mites have only three
pairs of legs; but a fourth pair are added during growth.
In Phytoptns, which infests plants, there are only two pairs
of legs.

The mode of life of the different members of this order
varies greatly: some are parasitic upon animals; others
infest living plants ; and many feed upon dead animal or
vegetable matter, thus acting as scavengers.

Among the mites that are parasitic upon animals are the
various Ticks, which are very common in the
warmer parts of our country. Figure 50 rep-
resents the Cattle-tick of the Southern States.
It should be remembered in this connection
that the so-called Sheep-tick is a true insect, FIG. 5 o. The

L , . ,1 i T^- Cattle-tick, fe-

belongmg to the order Diptera. male.

The Itch-mite is a well-known parasite, infesting man

and causing the disease known as
the itch. The sensation character-
istic of this disease is due to the
burrowing of the mites in the skin ;
and the efficiency of sulphur oint-

FIG. si.-An itch-mite: a, from ment in checking this disease is

below; b.fromabove. ^116 to t } le f act that by the use Q f

it the mites are killed. Figure 51 represents an itch-mite
greatly enlarged.

Parasitic mites are frequently found attached to insects ;
a common species occurs beneath the wings of locusts.

The best known of the mites that infest plants is the one
commonly called the Red Spider. This lives upon house-
plants ; and in the warmer parts of the country, where there

44 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

is a dry season, it infests fruit-trees in the open air. As it
thrives only in a dry atmosphere, it can be subdued upon
house-plants by a liberal use of water. When it occurs
upon plants in the open air it can be combated with any of
the washes found useful in destroying scale insects.

Some of the mites that infest plants produce galls.
These galis are of various forms, but differ from those pro.
duced by gall-flies (Family Cynipidce of the Order Hymen,
optera] in having open mouths, from which the young mites
escape.

A common disease of the pear, known as the pear-leaf
blister, is produced by a four-legged mite, PJiytoptus pyri
(Phy-top'tus py'ri) (Fig. 52). The blisters characteristic of

FIG. 52. Phytoptus pyri, greatly enlarged.

the disease are swellings of the leaf, within which there is a
cavity affording a residence for the mites. Figure 53 repre-

g

FIG. 53. Diagram of gali of P/iytofitus pyri :
f, gall; w, , normal structure of leaf ; o, open-
ing of gall ; e, eggs. (After Soraur).

sents a section of a leaf through one of these galis. Here
the leaf is seen to be greatly thickened at the diseased part.
On the lower side there is an opening through which the
mite that started the gall entered, and from which young;

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 45

.nites developed in the gall can escape, in order to start new
galls. In addition to the swelling of both surfaces of the
leaf its internal structure is seen to be modified. In some
parts there is a great multiplication of the cells, and in
others a large part of the cells have been destroyed. Two
eggs of mites are represented in this gall. As the season
advances, and the galls become dry and brownish or black,
the thickening of the leaf becomes less marked. In fact, in
some cases there is a shrinkage of the parts affected. Fig-

FIG. 54. Section of leaf showing structure of gall in autumn : g, gall ; , n,
uninjured part of leaf ; a, opening of gall.

ure 54 represents a section through a leaf collected and
studied in October.

Among the scavenger mites there are some that infest
food products. Thus mites are sometimes found in cheese,
in sugar, and in preserved meats.

Class MVRIAPODA (Myr-i ap'o-da).
The Centipedes and the Millipedes.

The members of this class are air-breathing' Arthropods, in
which the head ts distinct from the thorax, and the thorax
and abdomen form a continuous region, ivithfrom six to two
hundred segments, each bearing a pair of legs. The head
bears a single pair of antenna:.

The thousand-legged worms, as they are commonly
called, are well-known and generally feared creatures. But
tew students find them attractive subjects of study ; never-
theless it is well to know something about them, for some of
them are dangerous animals, and some are harmless. A few
species are injurious to agriculture, while others are to be

46 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

classed among our friends. And all of them are of interest
to the naturalist as representatives of a distinct type of
Arthropods.

If we omit certain small and rather uncommon forms,
the Myriapods may be classed in two orders ; one consisting
o; : the Centipedes, the other of the Millipedes.

Order CHILOPODA (Chi-lop'o-da).

The Centipedes.

The centipedes can be recognized at a glance by the fact
that each segment of the body bears a single pair of legs

(Fig. 55). The body is
usually flattened, and the
antennae are long and many-
jointed.

Many species of centi-
FIG. 55. A Centipede. pedes are venomous. The

poison glands open through the claws of the first pair of legs,
which are bent forward so as to act with the mouth parts.
These creatures abound in all parts of the United States;
those which are found in the North are comparatively
small, and rarely, if ever, inflict serious injury to man ; but
the larger species, which occur in the warmer regions, are
said to b^ extremely venomous.

The centipedes are predaceous, feeding on insects ; they
usually live under stones, logs, and bark. There is one spe-
cies, Cermatia forceps (Cer-ma'ti-a), which has very long legs,
and only fifteen pairs of them, which is often found running
on the walls of houses, especially in the Southern States.
We have never heard of this centipede biting a human be-
ing, and as it feeds upon insects, especially cockroaches, it
may be regarded as a welcome visitor in houses.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES.

47

Order CHILOGNATHA (Chi-log'na-tha).
The Millipedes.

The millipedes differ from the centipedes in having two
pairs of legs on each of the body segments except the
first three. The body in most of them is not flattened as
with the centipedes, and the antennae are comparatively
short and few jointed (Fig. 56).

FIG. 56. A Millipede.

The millipedes, as a rule, live in damp places and feed on
decaying vegetable matter. They are harmless, except that
occasionally they feed upon growing plants.

CHAPTER III.
Class HEXAPODA (Hex-ap'o-da),

The Insects,

The members of this class arc air-breathing Arthropoda,
with distinct Jiead, thorax, and abdomen. They have one fiair
of antennce, three pairs of legs, and usually one or tivo pairs
of wings in the adult state.

There are about us on every side myriads of tiny crea-
tures that are commonly passed unnoticed, and even when
observed, they are usually thought to be unworthy of serious
consideration. But all life is linked together in such a way
that no part of the chain is unimportant. Frequently upon
the action of some of these minute beings depends the mate-
rial success or failure of a great commonwealth. The intro-
duction and spread of a single species of insect (the Cot-
tony-cushion Scale) in California threatened the destruction
of the extensive orchards of that State ; thousands of trees
perished. The introduction of a few individuals of a partic-
ular kind cf Lady-bug (Vcdalia cardinalis), which feeds upon
this pest and multiplies rapidly, soon checked the evil, and
has nearly removed the pest from the State.

But insects are of interest to us for other reasons tl an
the influence they may have upon our material welfare; the
study of them is a fruitful field for intellectual growth. It is
not a small matter to be able to view intelligently the facts
presented by the insect world, to know something of what
is going on around us. And so rich is this field that no one
gains more than a mere smattering concerning it.

48

HEXAPODA. 49

We know as yet comparatively little about the minute
structure of insects ; the transformations and habits of the
greater number of species have not been studied ; and the
blood-relationship of the various groups of insects is very
imperfectly understood. If, therefore, one would learn
something of the action of the laws that govern the life and
development of organized beings, and at the same time ex-
perience the pleasure derived from original investigation, he
cannot find a better field than is offered by the study of in-
sects.

But it is not necessary that one should have the tastes
and leisure required for careful scientific investigation in
order to profit by this study. It can be made a recreation,
a source of entertainment when we are tired, a pleasant oc-
cupation for our thoughts when we walk. Anyone can find
out something new regarding insect architecture the ways
in which these creatures build nests for themselves or fot
their young. It is easy to observe remarkable feats of en-
gineering, examples of foresight, wonderful industry, unre-
mitting care of young, tragedies, and even war and slavery.

The abundance of insects makes it easy to study them.
They can be found wherever man can live, and at all seasons.
This abundance is even greater than is commonly supposed.
The number of individuals in a single species is beyond com-
putation : who can count the aphids or the scale-bugs in a
single orchard, or the bees in a single meadow?

Not only are insects numerous when we regard individ-
uals, but the number of species is far greater than that of
all other animals taken together. The number of species in
a single family is greater in several cases than the number
of stars visible in a clear night.

The word insect is often applied incorrectly to any mi-
nute animal ; and even among naturalists there is some lack
of uniformity in its use. Some writers include under this
term the Arachnida and Myriapoda, as well as the Six-footed
Insects. But the great majority of entomologists restrict

50 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the term to the Hexapoda, and it is in this sense that we
use it.

The name Hexapoda is from two Greek words: hex, six ;
and polls, foot. It refers to the fact that the members of
this order differ from other Arthropods in the possession of
only six feet.

Insects breath by means of a system of air-tubes (tra-
cheae) which extends through the body. This is true even
in the case of those that live in water and are supplied with
gill-like organs (the tracheal gills ; see p. 75). The head is
distinct from the thorax, and bears a single pair of antennas ;
in these respects they are closely allied to the Myriapods.
But they can be easily distinguished by the number of their
feet, and, usually, also by the presence of wings.

THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.

Nearly all insects in the course of their lives undergo re-
markable changes in form. Thus the butterfly, which de-
lights us with its airy flight, was at one time a caterpillar ;
the bee, which goes so busily from flower to flower, lived first,
the life of a clumsy, footless grub ; and the graceful fly was
developed from a maggot.

In the following pages considerable attention will be
given to descriptions of the changes through which various
insects pass. It is our wish in this place merely to define
certain terms which are used in describing these changes.

Development without Metamorphosis. In one of the orders
of insects, the Thysanura, the young insect just hatched
from the egg is of the same form as the adult insect. These
insects merely grow larger, without any more marked change
in form than takes place in our own bodies during our life.
They are said, therefore, to develop without metamorphosis.

Incomplete Metamorphosis. There are many insects which
undergo a striking change of form during their life, although
the young greatly resembles the adult. Thus a young locust
just out from the egg can be easily recognized as a locust.

HEXAPODA.

It is of course much smaller than the adult, and is not fur-
nished with wings. Still the form of the body is essentially
the same as that of the adult (Fig. 57). (The hair-line
above the figure indicates the natural size of the insect.)
After a time rudimentary wings appear; and these increase

FIG. 57. Nymph of l\felano/>lus,
first stage. (After Emerton.)

FIG. 58. Nympli of Melnnof>lus,
second stage. (After Emerton.)

FIG. 59. Nymph of Melanof>lus^ third stage.
(After Emerton.)

FiG. 60. Nymph of Hfelatwf>lus, fourth
stage. (After Emerton.)

FIG. 61 Nymph of Melanoplus^ fifth
stage. (After Emerton.)

FIG. 62. Melanoplus, adult.

in size from time to time till the adult state is reached (Figs.
57 to 62). During this development there is no point at
which the insect passes into a quiescent state corresponding
to the chrysalis state of a butterfly. Those insects which,
like the locust, when they emerge from the egg resemble in
form the adult, but still undergo some change, are said to un-
dergo an incomplete metamorphosis. In other words, after
leaving the egg they do not undergo a complete change of
form.

Complete Metamorphosis. Still other insects, like the but-

THE STUDY OF INSECTS,

terf.ies, beetles, bees, and flies, leave the egg in an entirely
different form from that which they assume when they reach
maturity. A butterfly begins its active life as a caterpillar.
It feeds and grows, and when full grown changes to a chrys-
salis. In this stage it has very little resemblance to a cater-
pillar. After a time there bursts forth from the chrysalis
shell the butterfly, which looks very little like the chrysalis,
and still less like the caterpillar from which it came. In a
similar way, from the egg laid by a fly upon a piece of meat
there hatches, not a fly, but a footless, worm-like maggot.
This when fully grown changes to a quiescent object corre-
sponding to the chrysalis of a butterfly. Later from this ob-
ject there escapes a winged fly like that which laid the egg.
Those insects, like the butterflies and flesh-flies, which when
they emerge from the egg bear almost no resemblance in
form to the adult insect, are said to undergo a complete met-
amorphosis. In other words, the change of form undergone
by the insect is a complete one.

How Insects groiv Molting. The skin of an insect is hard-
ened more or less by a horny substance known as cliitine
(chi'tine). This hardening usually occurs to a much greater

extent in adult insects than it does in
the young. But in all the skin becomes
so firm that it cannot stretch enough to
allow for the growth of the insect. The
result is, that from time to time an in-
sect's skin becomes too small for it, and
must be shed. But before this is done
a new skin is formed beneath the old
one; then the old skin bursts open, and
the insect crawls forth, clothed in a soft
skin, which stretches to accommodate
the increased size of the animal. Very
soon, however, this new skin becomes
hardened with chitine, and after a time

FIG. 62rt. Exuviae of

nymph of Dragon-fly, it in turn must be shed. This shedding
of the skin is termed molting, and the cast skin is some-

HEXAPODA.

53

times referred to as the exuvice (ex-u'vi-ae). Insects differ
greatly as to the number of times they molt : many species
molt only four or five times, while others are known to
molt more than twenty times. Figure 62a represents the
cast skin of a Dragon-fly clinging to a reed.

The Egg. This is the first stage in the existence of
any insect, although in some
few instances the egg remains
in the body of the mother till
it hatches. But almost always
the eggs are laid by the mother
insect on or near the food which
gives nourishment to the young.
Many of the most interesting
habits of insects are connected
with the care of the eggs by
the parent. The eggs may have
smooth oval shells ; but often
the shells are beautifully ribbed FIG. 6 3 . Egg- of Cotton-worm, greatly

enlarged. (From the Author's Report

and pitted (rig. 03), and some- on Cotton insects.)

times they are ornamented with spines, and are frequently

exquisitely colored.

The Larva. This is the second stage of an insect's life,
and is the form that hatches from the egg. Familiar exam-
ples of larvae are caterpillars, maggots, and grubs (Fig. 64).

FIG. 64. A caterpillar, the larva of a moth.

In fact, nearly all the creatures commonly known as worms
are larvae of insects. Away from the ocean we find but few
worms, except earthworms, leeches, " hair-snakes," and
worm parasites in the intestines of men and animals.
Nearly all the rest, except millipedes and centipedes, are
larvae of insects, and finally change to forme with wings,

54 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The larval stage is devoted to growth; the sole business
of a larva being to eat and grow. All molting, because of in-
creased size, is done in the larval stage, later molts are
simply for change of shape.

The Pupa. This is the third stage in the life of an in-
sect, and is ordinarily a period of inaction, except that rapid
and wonderful changes go on within the body. Very few
pupae, like those of mosquitoes, are active. Usually pupae

have no power of moving
around, but many of them can
squirm when disturbed. When
the last skin of the larva is
thrown off the pupa is re-
vealed ; it is an oblong object,

F,G. 6 5 .-A pupa of a large moth. and frequently apparently

headless and footless. In many pupae the skin is a shiny
covering like porcelain. If a pupa be examined closely the
antennae and legs and wings may be seen ; these are folded
up closely and soldered to the breast in the case of tne
moths and butterflies (Fig. 65), but free in case of the bees,
ants, and beetles.

The Chrysalis. This term is often applied to the pupa of
a butterfly. The word is derived from a Greek word mean-
ing gold, and came into use because of the golden dots and
markings on many of the butterfly pupae.

The Cocoon.- Many larvae, especially those of moths,
when full grown, spin about the body a silken case, so that
when they change to helpless pupae they may be protected
from enemies, and from rain and snow; these silken cases
are called cocoons They are frequently made within a
rolled leaves (Fig. 66). or beneath grass and rubbish on the
ground, or in cells below the ground. Some hairy caterpil-
lars make cocoons largely of their own hairs, which they
fasten together with a film of silk.

The Nyir.phs The terms larva and pupa are only ap.
plied to the early stages of those insects that have a com-

HEX A POD A. 55

plete metamorphosis; for in the case of other insects there
is no distinct pupa stage. When reference is made to the
young of an insect that undergoes an incomplete metamor-

FIG. 66. A large cocoon within a rolled leaf.

phosis it is called a nyjnph. This term is applied to all
stages of such an insect from the time they hatch from the
egg until they shed their skin for the last time. When a
nymph first hatches it has no signs of wings ; but after it
molts several times two projections appear on each side of
the thorax. These projections become larger and larger,
and more wing-like in form with each successive molt.
Usually the change in the size of these organs, between the
last nymph stage and the adult stage, is much greater than
that of any previous molt. With the nymphs of certain
families, dragon-flies, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts,
the front pair of developing wings extend back beneath the
hind pair instead of covering them ; and by this inverted
position of the wings the nymphs may be distinguished from
the adults, even in those cases where the adults have only
rudimentary wings.

The Adult. This is the last stage or the mature form
of the insect. Almost all adult insects except Thysanura
have wings, although there are numerous exceptions to the
rule ; for there are many cases where wings have been lost
through disuse. An insect never grows after it reaches the
adult stage, and therefore never molts. There is a popular
belief that a small fly will grow into a large fly, but this is
not true, for after any insect gets its perfect wings it can

$6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

grow no larger, except that in case of females the body
may be distended by the growth of eggs within it. While
many adults eat mere or less, it is only to sustain life, and
not for growth. Indeed, many adult insects take very little
food, and some have lost their mouth-parts entirely, through
disuse. The adult stage usually lasts for a considerably
shorter time than the larval or nymph stages. In fact, it
seems planned in the economy of nature that the grown-up
insects should live only long enough to lay eggs, and thus
secure the perpetuation of the species.

THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The subject of insect anatomy is separated into two divi-
sions : one, treating of the structure of the body-wall or
skeleton ; the other, of the internal organs. The former is
termed external anatomy ; the latter, internal anatomy.

In our own bodies we find a central framework or skele-
ton, about which are arranged the muscles, blood-vessels,
nerves, and other organs. But insects are constructed on
an entirely different plan: with them the supporting skele-
ton is outside, and the muscles, nerves, and other organs
are within this skeleton. The difference can be well seen
if the figure showing the internal structure of the leg of a
May-beetle (Fig. 67) be compared with one of our own
limbs, either arm or leg.

FIG. 67, Leg of M;iy-beetle. (After Straus Durckheim.)

The body of an insect is built on the same plan as are
its legs. The outside of the body is more or less firm, being
hardened by chitine ; and this firm outer wall supports the
muscles and other organs, thus serving as a skeleton. The
skeleton is therefore, in general outline, a hollow cylinder.

HEXAPODA.

57

This hardening of the body-wall is not continuous, but
takes place in a series of more or less regular, ring-like bands,
which give the well-known seg-
mented appearance characteristic of
insects, and the animals closely FIG. es. A Larva,

allied to them. Between the hardened ring-like segments
the body-wall remains soft and flexible. In this way provi-
sion is made fcr the various motions of
the body. The ring-like nature of the
segments of the body is best seen in
larvae (Fig. 68), and in the hinder part of
an adult insect (Fig. 69). The movements
of the legs, antennae, and certain other
appendages are provided for in the same
way ; each one is a cylinder made up of
several segments, and between these seg-
ments the wall of the cylinder remains
flexible.

When a single segment of the body is
examined, the hardened portion is not
found to be a continuous ring, but is seen
to be made up of several portions more
FIG. 6 9 . A Mole Cricket, or less movable upon each other. Such
a hardened portion of the body-wall is termed a sclerite
(scle'rite).

The sclerites constitute the greater part of the body-wall,
the soft membranous portions separating them being in
most cases narrow. Usually these narrow portions are
mere lines; they are then called sutures (sut'urs).

Frequently the sutures become entirely effaced. We
are therefore often unable to distinguish certain sclerites in
one species of insect which we know to exist in another.
In such cases the effaced sutures are said to be obsolete.

If the central portion or thorax of an adult insect be
examined, numerous sclerites and sutures can be observed
(Fig. 70).

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The subject of external anatomy of insects consists very
largely in a study of the sclerites of which the different
segments of the body and of its appendages are composed.
This part of the subject is quite difficult, and will not be
discussed here. It is treated, however, in the discussion of
the characters used in the classification of the Coleoptera
given on pages 499 to 504. These pages should be carefully
studied before attempting to use the table that follows them.

FIG. 70. Side-view of Locust with wings
removed

FIG. 71. Wasp, with
head, thora.x, and
abdomen separated.

The segments of the body in a fully developed insect are
grouped into three regions : head, thorax, and abdomen
(Fig. 71). In the larval state this grouping of the segments
is not well shown.

The Head and its Appendages.

The head is the first of the three regions of the body.
It is supposed to be formed of several body-segments grown
together ; but entomologists differ in their views as to the
number of segments that have entered into its composition.
The head bears the compound eyes, the simple eyes, the
antennae, and the mouth-parts.

The Compound Eyes. On each side of
the head of an adult insect is an organ,
which is recognized at once as an eye.
But when one of these eyes is examined
with a microscope it is found to present

FIG. 72. Part of com- ,.,-, , , f

pound eye, greatly en- an appearance very ditlerent trom that of

the eye of higher animals ; its surface

is divided into a large number of six-sided divisions

HEX A POD A.

59

7-P

(Fig. 72). A study of the internal structure of this
organ has shown that each of these hexagonal divi-
sions is the outer end of a distinct eye (Fig. 73). Hence
what at first appears to be a single eye is
really an organ composed of hundreds of eyes ;
it is termed, therefore, a compound eye. Each
of the small eyes of which a compound eye is
composed is termed an ommatidium. The
number of ommatidia of which a compound
eye is composed varies greatly : there may
be not more than fifty, as in certain ants, or
there may be many thousand, as in a butter-
fly or a dragon-fly. Compound eyes are not
found in larvae, though they may possess a
group of simple eyes on each side of the head.

The Simple Eyes. In addition to the com-
pound eyes, many adult insects possess simple
eyes. These are situated between the com-
pound eyes. They vary in number from one
to four; the most common number is three (see
Fig. 71). The simple eyes are usually termed
ocelli ; sometimes, stemmata (stem'ma-ta).

When the term ocelli is used in descriptive
works, if there is nothing in the context to F]G
indicate the contrary, it is almost invariably
applied to the simple eyes, and not to the ele-
ments of the compound eyes. In the same
way the term eye usually refers to the com-
pound eyes, unless otherwise indicated by the
context.

The Antenna. The antennae are a pair of
jointed appendages inserted in the head in
front of the eyes or between them. They
vary in form. In some insects they are thread-like, consisting
of a series of similar segments; in others certain segments
are greatly modified in form.

Three
ommatidia from
the compound eye
of a May-beelle.
(After Grenach-
er.) The pig-
ment has been
dissolved away
from two of
them, f, corneal
facet; A', crystal-
line cone ; /, pig-
ment-sheath ; /',
chief pigment-
cell ; /", pig-
ment-cells of the
second order ; R,
retinulas.

6o

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The various forms of antennae are designated by special
terms. The more common of these forms are represented

in Figure 74. These are as follows :

1. Setaceous (se-ta'ceous) or bris-
tle-like, in which the segments are
successively smaller and smaller, the
whole organ tapering to a point.

2. Filiform (fiTi-form) or thread-
like, in which each segment is of
nearly uniform thickness throughout
its length; and the antenna as a
whole tapers gradually, if at all, to-

. /^^ x ^* wards the tip.

AJ \/^^^ 3- Moniliform (mo-niri-form) or

"7 V5f w^-^ 5 "' necklace-form, in which the segments

are more or less globose, suggesting
a string of beads.

4. Serrate (ser'rate) or saw-like,
in which the segments are triangular,
and project like the teeth of a saw.
$. Pectinate (pec'ti-nate) or comb-like, in which the seg-
ments have long processes on one side, like the teeth of a
comb, or on both sides, like a feather.

6. Clavate (cla'vate) or club-shaped, in which the seg-
ments become gradually broader, so that the whole organ
assumes the form of a club.

7. Capitate (cap'i-tate) or with a head, in which the
terminal segment or segments form a large knob.

8. Lamellate (Jam'el-late), in which the segments that
compose the knob are extended on one side into broad
plates.

The Month-parts. No set of organs in the body of an in-
sect vary in form to a greater degree than do the mouth-parts.
Thus with some the mouth is formed for biting, while with
others it is formed for sucking. Among the biting insects
some are predaceous, and have jaws fitted for seizing and

FIG. 74. Various forms of an-
tennae.

HEXAPODA,

61

tearing their prey ; others feed upon vegetable matter, and
have jaws for chewing this kind of food. Among the suck-
ing insects the butterfly merely sips the nectar from flowers j
while the mosquito needs a powerful instrument for piercing
its victim. In this place the typical form of the mouth-
parts as illustrated by the biting insects is described. The
various modifications of it presented by the sucking insects
are described later, in the discussion of the characters of
those insects.

In the biting insects, the mouth-parts consist of an upper
lip, the /rt/;/7/;//(la'brum) (Fig. 75, 8); an under lip, the labium
(la'bi-um) (Fig. 75, 12); and two
pairs of jaws between them. These
jaws open sidewise, instead of in
a vertical direction, as do the
jaws of the higher animals. The
upper pair of jaws are called the
mandibles (man'di-bles) (Fig. 75,
10); the lower pair, the maxilla
(max-il'lae) (Fig. 75, u). There
may be also within the mouth
one or two tongue-like organs,
the eflzfl/tarynx(ep-i-pha.r'ynx) and
hypopliarynx (hy - po - phar'ynx)
(Fig. 75, 13). The epipharynx is

attached to the upper wall of the cavity of
the mouth, and the hypopharynx to the
lower. The position of the hypopharynx is
quite analogous, therefore, to that of our
tongue.

The mandibles vary much in form, but
usually each consists of a single sclerite.
The maxillae of biting insects, on the other
TIG. 7 6.-Maxiiia of a hand, are very complicated organs, each com-
posed of several sclerites. Each maxilla
bears an appendage consisting of several segments; these

FIG. 75. Mouth-parts of the Red-
legged Locust.

62

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

appendages are termed the maxillary palpi. In the maxillae
of certain biting insects, as the grasshoppers and the ground
beetles, there is an appendage usually consisting of two
segments : this is the galea (ga'le-a) or outer lobe. In some
of these insects, as the ground-beetles and the tiger-
beetles, the galea is shaped like a palpus, and thus there
appears to be two pairs of maxillary palpi (Fig. 76).
The labium is furnished with a pair of jointed appendages ;
these are the labial palpi (Fig. 75, 12, d\

The Thorax and its Appendages.

The thorax is the second or intermediate region of the
body ; it is the region that bears, in the adult insect, the
organs of locomotion, the legs, and the wings when they are
present. This region is composed of three of the body-
segments more or less firmly joined together ; the segments
are most readily distinguished by the fact that each bears a
pair of legs. In winged insects, the wings are borne by the
second and third segments. The first segment of the thorax,
the one next to the head, is named the protJiorax ; the
second thoracic segment is the mesothorax ; and the third,
the metatliorax.

The Legs. Each leg consists of the following parts,
beginning with the one next to the body (see Fig. 77):

coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia,
and tarsus. Each of these
parts consists of a single seg-
ment except that in certain
Hymenoptera the trochanter
consists of two segments (Fig.
77, /), and in most insects the
tarsus consists of several seg-
ments. The number of seg.
ments of the tarsus varies from
one to six ; the most common number is five. Frequently
the first segment of the tarsus is much longer than either of

a b c

FIG. 77. Legs of insects : a. Wasp ; t.
Ichneumon-fly; c, Bee ; ^trochanter;
;;z, metatarsus.

HEXAPODA. 63

the other segments, and it may also differ greatly in form
from them ; under such circumstances it is sometimes desig-
nated the metatarsus (met-a-tar'sus) (Fig. 77, /;/). The last
segment of the tarsus usually bears one or two claws.

On the ventral surface of the segments of the tarsus in
many insects are cushion-like structures ; these are called
pulvilli (pul-vil-li). The cuticle of the pulvilli is traversed by
numerous pores which open either at the surface of the cuticle
or through hollow hairs, the tencnt hairs, and from which ex-
udes an adhesive fluid that enables the insect to walk on the
lower surface of objects.

The ivings. The two pairs of wings are borne by the
mesothorax and metathorax ; the prothorax never bears
wings.

In form, an insect's wing is a large membranous append-
age, which is thickened along certain lines. These thickened
lines are termed the veins or nerves of the wing ; and their
arrangement is described as the venation or neuration of the
wings. The thin spaces of the wings which are bounded by
the veins are called cells. When a cell is completely sur-
rounded by veins it is said to be closed ; but when it extends
to the margin of the wing it is said to be open.

The wings of different insects vary greatly in structure,
and thus afford excellent distinctions for the purposes of
classification. The various parts of the wing have, there-
fore, received special names. There is considerable lack of
uniformity among entomologists as to the names applied to
these parts ; but we have adopted the set of terms defined
below as representing the best usage.

An insect's wing is more or less triangular in outline ; it
therefore presents three margins : the costal margin, or costa
(Fig. 78, a, b] ; the outer margin (Fig. 78, 6, c) ; and the inner
margin (Fig. 78, c, d\

The angle at the base of the costal margin (Fig. 78, a] is
the humeral angle (hu'me-ral) ; that between the costal mar-
gin and the outer margin (Fig. 78, b) is the apex of the wing ;

64 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

and the angle between the outer margin -and the inner mar-
gin (Fig. 78, c] is the anal angle (a'nal).

There have been many different sets of names applied to
the veins of the wings. Not only have the students of each

III, Hl2

C

FIG. 78. Fore wing of a butterfly with the veins and cells numbered.

order of insects had a peculiar nomenclature, but in many
cases different students of the same order of insects have
used different sets of terms. This condition of affairs was
incident to the beginning of the science, the period before
the correspondence of the veins in the different orders had
been worked out. But now the time has come when it seems
practicable to apply a uniform nomenclature to the wing veins
of all orders; and the following set of terms is proposed for
that purpose.

The principal veins of the wing, those that arise at or
near the base of the wing, are termed, beginning with the
one lying on the costal margin, the costa (cos'ta), the subcosta,
the radius (ra'di-us), the media (me'di-a), the cubit its (cu'bi-
tus), and the anal veins. The radius, media, and cubitus are
usually branched, and there may be several anal veins.

In addition to the principal or longitudinal veins, there
may be a greater or less number of cross-veins veins extend-
ing transversely from one longitudinal vein to another.

HEXAPODA.

The principal veins may be designated 'by numbers as well
as by names ; the following table indicates the correspondence
of the names and numbers :

Costa = vein I.
Subcosta = vein II.
Radius = vein III.
Media = vein V.

Cubitus = vein VII.
1st anal vein = vein VIII.
2d anal vein = vein IX.
3d anal vein = vein XI.

It was formerly believed that in certain insects three other
longitudinal veins were present ; these were numbered IV, VI,
and X respectively ; hence these numbers are omitted in the
above table.

At the time the first edition of this book was written, it was
thought best to designate the veins by numbers; and conse-
quently numbers are used in the following pages much more
generally than are the names of the veins. But owing to a
lack of uniformity in the numbering of the veins by different
writers, it is now clear that the names are to be preferred. In

3d A

2d A

FIG. 79. Diagram representing- the typical arrangement of the wing-veins, includ-
ing the four more important cross-veins : //, humeral cross-vein ; r-m, radio-
medial cross-vein ; m, medial cross-vein ; m-cu, medio-cubital cross-vein.

the lettering of figures abbreviations of the names can be used
as is done in Figure 79.

The divisions of a branched vein are numbered, beginning
with the one nearest the costal margin of the wing ; and

these numbers are indicated by sub-figures. For example,
G

66 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the five branches of the typical radius, or vein III, are
designated either thus, R b R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 ; or thus, IIIi,
III 2 , III,, III 4 , III 5 .

When two or more branches of a branched vein coalesce,
the compound vein is designated by an expression indicating
this coalescence, as III 2+3 or R 2+3 . In this way it is possible to
indicate some of the changes that have taken place in the de-
velopment of the species; and to make use of them in working
out the classification of the group to which the species belongs.

The cells of the wing are designated by applying to each
the number or the abbreviation of the name of the vein that
forms its cephalic (front) margin. In Figure 78 the veins are
designated by numbers at the margin of the figure ; the cells
by numbers within the figure. When a cell is divided by a
cross-vein the parts are numbered, as in the case of cell V 2 in
Figure 497, page 422.

The Abdomen and its Appendages.

The abdomen is the third or caudal region of the body.
Its segments are more simple, distinct, and ring-like than
those of the other regions. The number of segments of
which it appears to be composed varies greatly. In the
Cuckoo-flies (Chrysididce) there are usually only three or four
visible, while in many other insects nine appear. Except in
the lowest order of insects (Thysanurct) the abdomen of the
adult bears no locomotive appendages. But many larvae
have fleshy appendages which aid in locomotion : these are
termed prolcgs. In the adult the end of the body in many
families is furnished with jointed filaments the cerci, and
caudal setce. Frequently also the body is furnished in the
male with organs for clasping the claspers ; and in the female
with saws, pierces, or borers the ovipositor. In the female of
certain insects there is a sting, a modified ovipositor, which
is used as an organ of defence ; and the abdomen of plant-
lice and certain other insects bears a pair of tubes or tuber-

HEX A POD A. 67

cles, through which a waxlike material is excreted : these
are commonly called Iwney-tiibcs \ they are also termed
cornicles, nectaries, or sip/iunclcs; see page 157.

THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS^

(For advanced students.)

As has been shown in the preceding pages, the body-wall serves
as a skeleton, being hard, and giving support to the other organs of
the body. This skeleton may be represented, therefore, as a hollow
cylinder. We have now to consider the arrangement and the general
form of the organs contained in this cylinder. For the details of the
structure of th internal organs the student is referred to more special
works.

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 80), which represents a vertical,
longitudinal section of the body, will enable the student to gain an idea
of the relative position of some of the more important organs. The
parts shown in the diagram are as follows: The body-wall, or skeleton

FIG. 80. Diagram showing the relation of the internal organs.

(s) ; this is made up of a series of overlapping segments ; that part of it
between the segments is thinner, and is not hardened with chitine,
thus remaining flexible and allowing for the movements of the body.
Just within the body-wall, and attached to it, are represented a few of
the muscles (in) it will be seen that these muscles are so arranged
that the contraction of those on the lower side of the body would
bend it down, while the contraction of those on the opposite side
would act in the opposite direction. The alimentary canal (a) occu-
pies the centre of the body, and extends from one end to the other.
The heart (k) is a tube open at both ends, and lying between the
alimentary canal and the muscles of the back. The central part of
the nervous system () is a series of small masses of nervous matter
connected by two longitudinal cords: one of these masses, the brain,
lies in the head above the alimentary canal ; the others are situated,

68

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.
PLATE II.

A CATERPILLAR '^Cossus ligniperda).
(After Lyonet.)

ffV*. T. Caterpillar opened on the ventral middle line. FIG. 2. Caterpillar opened on
the dorsal middle line, i, principal longitudinal tracheae ; 2, central nervous syi-
tern; 3, aorta ; 4, longitudinal dorsal muscles; 5, longitudinal ventral musclesr
6, wings of the heart; 7, tracheal trunks arising near spiracles; 8, reproductive
organs ; 9, vertical muscles : 10, last abdominal ganglion.

HEXAPODA, 69

one in each segment, between the alimentary canal and the layer of
muscles of the ventral side of the body ; the two cords connecting
these masses, or ganglia, pass one on each side of the oesophagus to
the brain. The reproductive organs (r) lie in the cavity of the abdo-
men and open near the caudal end of the body. The respiratory
organs are omitted from this diagram for the sake of simplicity.

The Muscular System. We find in insects a wonderfully large
number of muscles. Those that move the segments of the body form
several layers just wil.iin the body-wall. The two figures on Plate II
represent two caterpillars which have been split open lengthwise, one
on the middle line of the back and one on the opposite side ; in each
case the alimentary canal has been removed, so that only those organs
that are attached quite closely to the body-wall are left. From a study
of these figures some idea can be obtained of the number and arrange-
ment of these muscles. It should be borne in mind, however, that
only a single layer of muscles is represented in these figures the layer
which would be seen if a caterpillar were opened in the way indicated.
When these muscles are cut away many other muscles are found ex-
tending obliquely in various directions between these muscles and the
body-wall.

The muscles of insects appear very differently from those (the lean
meat) of higher animals. In insects the muscles are either colorless
and transparent, or yellowish white ; and they are soft, almost of a
gelatinous consistence. When hardened by alcohol or otherwise, and
examined with a microscope, they are seen to be crossed by numerous
transverse lines, like the voluntary muscles of Vertebrates.

As a rule, the muscles of insects are composed of aii immense
number of distinct fibres, which are not enclosed in tendinous sheaths
as with Vertebrates. But the muscles that move the appendages oi
the body are furnished with a tendon at the end farthest from the
body (Fig. 81).

FIG. 81. Leg of May-beetle. (After Straus-Durckheim.)

Notwithstanding the soft and delicate appearance of the muscles
of insects, they are really very strong. One has only to observe the
power of leaping possessed by many species to be convinced of this,

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

PLATE III.

a jtwirT.es

A COCKROACH (Periplaneta oriental's).
(From Rolleston).

a, antennae; ii, 62, 63, tibiae; f, anal cerci ; d, ganglion on recurrent nerve upon the
crop ; e, salivary duct ; _/", salivary bladder; g, gizzard ; h, hepatic coeca; t, chylific
stomach ; j, Malpighian vessels; k, small intestine; /, large intestine; m, rectum;
, first abdominal ganglion ; o, ovary ; /, sebaceous glands.

HEX A POD A. 71

And the rapidity of their action is even more wonderful than their
strength. This rapidity is best illustrated by the muscles that move
the wings. Every one has observed gnats and other flies poising in mid
air by a movement of the wings so rapid that the eye cannot follow it.
Physicists have been able, however, to count these vibrations by de-
termining the pitch of the musical note produced in this way. And
they tell us that certain gnats vibrate their wings 15,000 times per
second.

The Alimentary Canal. The typical position of this is represented
in the diagram (Fig. 80); and on Plate III, illustrating the anatomy
of a cockroach, its form in that insect is shown. In larvae it is a
nearly straight tube, extending from one end of the body to the other.
But in adult insects it is usually much longer than the body, and is
consequently more or less folded. It is composed of parts differing
in form and use. To these parts names have been given similar to
those used to designate the corresponding parts in higher animals ;
thus we distinguish a pharynx, an oesophagus, sometimes a crop, some-
times a gizzard, a stomach, a small intestine, and a large intestine.

The Adipose Tissue, or Fat. On opening the body of an insect,
especially of a larva, one of the most conspicuous things to be seen is
fatty tissue, in large masses. These often completely surround the
alimentary canal, and are held in place by numerous branches of the
tracheae with which they are supplied. Other and smaller masses of
this tissue adhere to the inner surface of the abdominal wall, in the
vicinity of the nervous system, and at the sides of the body. In a full-
grown larva of Corydalis cornuta I have found the adipose tissue to
be greater in bulk than all of the other organs found inside of the
muscular walls of the body. In adult insects it usually exists in much
less quantity than in larvaa.

The Blood-vessels. In insects all parts of the body cavity that are
not occupied by the internal organs are filled with blood.
Thus the alimentary canal is completely surrounded with
blood, and all the spaces between the muscles are filled *""
by this fluid. This is a very different arrangement from
what occurs in our own body, where the blood is con-
tained in a system of tubes, the arteries and the veins.
We find, however, that insects are not entirely deprived of
blood-vessels. For there is one which lies above the ali-
mentary canal, just within the middle line of the back.
See Figure 80, h, and Plate II, i. This extends from near P art of the

heart of a

the caudal end of the abdomen through the thorax into May-beetle,
the head. That part of this system that lies in .the abdomen

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

is usually termed the heart. This is a somewhat complicated organ

consisting of several chambers arranged in
series, and each communicating with the
one in front of it by an opening fur-
nished with valves. The number and form
of these chambers differ in different in-
sects. Fig. 82 represents the heart of a
May - beetle. These chambers not only
communicate with each other, but com-
municate with the body-cavity by means
of side openings, which are also furnished
with valves. These two sets of valves act
in such a way that when a chamber of the
heart contracts a stream of blood is forced
towards the head, and when it expands the
blood rushes into it through the side open-
ings, and from the chamber behind it. At-
tached to the lower surface of the heart
and extending out to the side of the body
there is on each side a series of triangular
muscles : these have been termed the wino-s

FIG. 8 3 .-Heart of May-beetle , .

(after Straus-Durckheim): a. Of the heart (Plate 11, 6, and Fig. 83, c).
lateral aspect of aorta * b T T-"

interior of heart showing In Figure c they are represented cut away
valves; c, ventral aspect of f rom lhe cau d a l part of the heart. The

heart and wing-muscles the

muscles are represented as prolongation of the heart, which extends

cut away from the caudal

part of the heart; </, dorsal through the thorax and into the head, is

aspect of heart. , . .

termed the aorta.

The blood is forced by the heart through the aorta into the head,
where it escapes into the body cavity. From this point it flows
through the body cavity in regular streams, which have definite di-
rections, but which are not included in vessels. They, like the ocean
currents, are definite streams with liquid shores.

The blood is usually colorless, or slightly tinged with green; but
its circulation is made conspicuous by the movements of the large
corpuscles with which it abounds. In transparent insects it can be
seen pouring forth from the cephalic end of the aorta, bathing first
the brain, and then passing to all parts of the body, even out into the
appendages. By tracing the course of any one of these currents it
will be found to flow, sooner or later, to the cavity between the wings
of the heart and the back in which the heart rests, and from which it
receives its blood.

The Nervous System. The central part of the nervous system, as

HEXAPODA.

73

already indicated, consists of a ganglion in the head above the oesoph-
agus, and of a series of ganglia, typically one for each segment of
the body, lying on the floor of the body cav-
ity, and connected by two longitudinal cords.
In the head, one of these cords passes on
each side of the oesophagus, from the brain
to another ganglion in the head below the
oesophagus, thus forming a nervous collar
about the alimentary canal. From each
ganglion nerves arise, which supply the ad-
jacent parts; and from the thoracic ganglia
nerves extend to the legs and wings. This
series of ganglia is really a double one; but
each pair of ganglia are more or less closely
united on the middle line of the body, and
often appear as a single ganglion. Figure 84
gives a general view of the nervous system of
Corydalis cornuta. From the brain (a) two
large nerves extend to the compound eyes,
and a smaller pair to the antennae , the sub-
cesophageal ganglion (/>) supplies the mouth-
parts with nerves ; and each of the thoracic
and abdominal ganglia supplies its segment
of the body.

How Insects Breathe The Respiratory System. A common mis-
take made by beginners in the study of Entomology is to suppose
that insects breathe through the mouth as do the higher animals.
Many a beginner has carefully poured chloroform on the head of an
insect in the expectation of killing it in that way, and has been sur-
prised at his poor success.

The truth is, insects breathe through their sides. If an insect be
carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body a
series of openings (Fig. 85). These are the openings through which

FIG. 84. Nervous system of
Corydalis. (After Leidy.)

FIG. 85. Side-view of Locust with wings removed.

the air passes into the respiratory system and are termed spiracles
(spir'a-cles).

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The number of spiracles varies greatly in different insects. There
is, however, never more than one pair on a single segment of the
body. They do not occur on the head, but are borne by each of the
thoracic segments, and by the first eight abdominal segments. Thus
there are eleven segments that may bear spiracles, but they are
always lacking on some one or more of these.

These spiracles are either simple openings into the respiratory
system, or are provided with valves, sieves, or fringes of hair for the
exclusion of dirt. They lead into a system of air-tubes termed tra-
chea- (tra'che-ae). The accompanying figures will indicate the distri-
bution of the main trunks of these tracheae in a cockroach (Figs. 86 and

FIG. 86. Tracheal system of Cockroach.
The dorsal integument removed and the
alimentary canal in place. (After Miall
and Denny.)

FIG. 87. Tracheal system of Cockroach.
The alimentary canal removed to show
the ventral tracheal communications.
(After Miall and Denny,)

87). There is a short trunk arising from each spiracle ; these are all
connected together by a large longitudinal trunk on each side of the
body, and by numerous transverse trunks. From these large tracheae
there arise a great number of smaller ones, not shown in the figures,
which branch and subdivide, and extend to all parts of the body. When
one dissects an insect the viscera are found to be connected together
by the ramifications of these tracheae, so that in order to remove any
organ it is necessary to cut some of them. The smaller branches of
the tracheae are exceedingly minute, and are intimately associated
with the various tissues. By means of these fine tracheal trunks the
air is carried to the tissues ; hence the blood plays a much smaller
part in respiration than it does in the Vertebrates.

Although insects are, strictly speaking, air-breathing animals,
many of them, as is well known, live in the water. The study of the
ways in which aquatic insects breathe is a very interesting one ; it

HEXAPODA;

75

presents to us many wonderful modifications ol structure. Some ot
the more common of these are described in subsequent pages of this
book ; in this place we can only make a few generalizations.

The various modes of respiration of aquatic insects may be classi-
fied under two heads: first, those in which the insects obtain air
from above the surface of the water; second, those in which the
insects breathe the air that is mechanically mixed with the water.

With many aquatic insects the spiracles open beneath the wings,
which are folded upon the abdomen. The insect, by coming to the
surface of the water and lifting the tip of its wings, forms a cavity be-
neath them, into which the air rushes. The insect can then swim
through the water, carrying this air with it in a position where it can
be respired. When the air becomes impure, the insect rises to the
surface, forces out the air from beneath its wings, and takes in a new
supply. Water-beetles and aquatic bugs afford familiar examples of
this mode of respiration.

Some insects are provided with long tubes connected with their
spiracles, by means of which they can draw their supply of air from
above the surface of the water while they crawl upon the bottom of
shallow ponds. Our most common illustrations of this are bugs of
the family Nepidcc; but the most remarkable development of this
kind is exhibited by certain Dipterous larvae of the family Syrphidce,
known as Rat-tailed Maggots.

Although there are many insects that live in the water and draw
their supply of air from above it, the greater number of aquatic
insects breathe, as do fishes, the air that is mixed with the water.
This is accomplished by organs known as tracheal gills. These are
hair-like or more or less plate-like expansions of the body-wall,
abundantly supplied with tracheae (Fig. 88). These tracheae
divide and subdivide, and their term! nations or fine branches
are separated from the water that bathes the organ only by
its thin walls. In this way the air contained in the tracheae
is separated from the air in the water only by a delicate
membrane, which admits of the transfer of gases between
them. It w:Jj be observed that the difference between a
tracheal gill and a true gill (as of fishes, Crustacea, etc ) is
that the true gill is supplied with vessels containing blood,
which is purified by being brought in contact with the air
in the water, while the tracheal gill is supplied with tracheae F IG .
containing air to be purified.

Tracheal gills are usually borne by the abdomen, some-
times by the thorax, and in case of one genus of Stone-flies by the

88.
Tracheal
Rill of
Agrion.

7 6 THE STUDY OF INSECT^

head. They pertain almost exclusively to the immature stages of
insects ; but Stone-flies of the genus Pteronarcys retain them through-
out their existence.

Tracheal gills vary greatly in form; in Corydalis they are hair-like,
and occur in tufts near the lateral margins of the abdominal seg-
ments ; in the Cadd ice-worms they are thread-like, more or less
branched, and irregularly distributed over the surface of the abdo-
men ; and in certain Dragon-flies they are in the form of large plate-
like caudal appendages. (Fig. 88.)

The Reproductive Organs. The reproductive organs are situated
in the abdomen, as represented in Figure 80. There is a set on each
side of the body ; but the two sets usually open by a common tube
near the caudal end of the body. In the May-flies and in the Ear-
wigs, however, the reproductive organs of each side have a distinct
opening. Thus May-flies are often found with two bunches of eggs
projecting from the caudal end of the body.

All insects are developed from eggs ; but there are some appar-
ent exceptions. Thus many flies retain their eggs until after they
are hatched, if a proper place for laying them is not found earlier;
and in some flies (the Pnpipara) the young attain a considerable de-
velopment before they are born. In the Plant-lice (Aphididce) there
is a remarkable alternation of reproduction by budding with the
sexual reproduction. This is described more fully in the account of
that family.

THE ORDERS OF THE HEXAPODA.

(For advanced student?.}

The Class Hexapoda, or Insects, is divided in this work into nine-
teen orders. This number is somewhat greater than what has been
commonly adopted heretofore. But we believe that in the earlier
classifications forms were brought together in the same order that
are not closely related, and that consequently the present classifica-
tion represents better the true relationship of the groups of insects.

There has been some hesitation on the part of many entomolo-
gists in adopting this division of certain of the old orders, merely for
the reason that they felt that the old classification was simpler. But
we do not share in this feeling. It seems to us that it is easier for
the student to learn the characters of a large number of well-defined
groups than it is to learn those of a smaller number of vaguely-
defined groups.

HEXAPODA. 77

In arranging the orders in a linear series, as must be done in a
book, it is impossible to indicate in a satisfactory way either the rela-
tion of the orders to each other or the relative rank of the orders.
An effort is made to place near together closely allied orders, and to
treat first those that are more simple or primitive or generalized in
structure, and last those that are more specialized. But this plan
could be fully carried out only by having several parallel columns on
the pages of the book, each representing a distinct line of descent,
an arrangement which, to say the least, is impracticable.

What has been done in this work is to place first the Thysanura,
which is doubtless the most primitive order. Then follow first the
orders that undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, and last, those
that undergo a complete metamorphosis. Within these two groups of
orders those with biting mouth-parts are placed first, and these are
followed by those with sucking mouth-parts, except that in the
second group the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are placed last for
want of a better position. We do not intend to indicate by this that
these two orders are closely related, or that they are more specialized
than the Diptera.

In fact, with regard to at least five of the ordersof insects (Hemip-
tera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera), it seems
idle to us to discuss which is the more highly specialized. Each has
been specialized in a direction peculiar to itself ; and to attempt to
describe which is the "highest " seems as futile as the discussion by
children of the question : " Which is better, sugar or salt ? "

We give below a table for use in classifying specimens. This table
is merely intended to aid the student in determining to which of the
orders a specimen that he is examining belongs. No effort has been
made to indicate in the table the relation of the orders to each other.

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE ORDERS OF HEXAPODA.*
(This table includes only adult insects.}

A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings.

B. Mandibles and maxillae retracted within the cavity of the head

so that only their apices are visible, p. 82 THYSANURA.

BB. Mandibles and maxillse more or less prominent and fitted for
biting. (See BBB also.)
C. Head with long, trunk-like beak. (Boreus.) p. 184.

MECOPTERA.

* See note at bottom of p. 10.

78 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

CC. Head not prolonged into a trunk.

D. Louse-like insects of small size ; 'oody less than one-sixth
inch in length.
E. Antennae with not more than five segments. (Bird-lice.)

p. 100 MALLOPHAGA.

EE. Antennae with many segments. (Book-lice.) p. 98.

CORRODENTIA.

DD. Insects of various forms, but not louse-like, and, except
in the case of some ants, with the body more than one-sixth
inch in length.

E. Abdomen with short, conical, compressed, many-jointed
caudal appendages. {Cockroaches^ p. IO4...ORTHOPTERA.
EE. Abdomen without jointed caudal appendages.

F. Legs fitted for jumping. {Wingless Locusts, Grasshop-
pers, and Crickets.", p. 104 ORTHOPTERA.

FF. Legs fitted for running.
G. Abdomen broadly joined to thorax.

H. Body linear. {Walking-sticks^) p. 104.

ORTHOPTERA.
HH. Body white and somewhat ant-like in form.

( Termes. ) p. 95 ISOPTERA.

HHH. Body neither linear nor ant-like in form,

( Wingless Fire-fly et al.) p. 494 COLEOPTERA.

GG. Base of abdomen strongly constricted. (Ants et al.)

p. 599 HYMENOPTERA.

BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking.

C. Small abnormal insects in which tne body is either scale-like
or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. The
waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts cr
plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale, beneath which

the insect lives. {Coccida;.} p. 121 HEMIPTERA.

CC. Body more or less covered with minute scales, or with
thick long hairs. Prothorax not free {i.e., closely united with
the mesothorax). Mouth-parts usually consisting of a long

"tongue" rolled beneath the head. p. 191 LEPIDOPTERA.

CCC. Body naked, or with isolated or bristle like hairs.

D. Prothorax not well developed, inconspicuous or invisible
from above. Tarsi five-jointed. Mouth-parts developed

into an unjointed trunk ; palpi present, p. 413 DIPTERA.

DD. Prothorax well developed.

E. Body strongly compressed ; tarsi five-jointed. (Fleas.)

p. 490 SlPHONAPTERA.

HEXAPODA. 79

EE. Body not compressed ; tarsi one-, two , or three-jointed.

F. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and

without claws , mouth-parts forming a triangular, un-

jointed beak; palpi present, p. 119 PHYSOPODA.

FF. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like, and furnished with
one or two claws ; mouth-parts forming a slender, usually
jointed beak; palpi apparently wanting, p. 121.

HEMIPTERA
AA. Winged. (The wing-covers, elytra, of beetles and of earwigs

are wings.)
B. With two wings.

C. Wings horny, leathery, or parchment-like.

D. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Wings leathery, short-
ened, or membranous at the tip. p. 121 HEMIPTERA.

DD. Mouth-parts formed for biting. Jaws distinct.

E. Wings horny, without veins. Hind legs not litied tor

jumping, p. 494 . . . . . . . . .CoLEOPTERA.

EE. Wings parchment-like, with a network of veins. Hind

legs fitted for jumping, p. 104 , . . .ORTHOPTERA.

CC. Wings membranous.

D. Abdomen with caudal filaments. Mouth-parts rudimentary.

E. Halteres wanting, p. 86 EPHEMERIDA.

EE. Halteres present (males of Coccidce). p. 121. HEMIPTERA.

DD. Abdomen without caudal filaments. Halteres in place of

second wings. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 413.

DIPTERA.

BB. With four wings.
C. The two pairs of wings unlike in structure.

D. Front wings leathery at base, and membranous at tip, often
overlapping. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 121.

HEMIPTERA.
DD. Front wings of same texture throughout.

E. Front wings horny or leathery, being veinless wing-
covers. (Elytra)
F. Abdomen with caudal appendages in form of movable

forceps, p. 102 EUPLEXOPTERA.

FF. Abdomen without forcep-like appendages, p. 494.

COLEOPTERA.

EE. Front wings leathery or parchment-like, with a network
of veins.

F. Under win^s not folded. Mouth-parts formed for suck-
ing, p. 121 HEMIPTERA.

8O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FF. Under wings folded lengthwise. Mouth-parts formed

for biting, p. 104 ORTHOPTERA.

CC. The two pairs of wings similar, membranous.

D. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and

without claws, p. 119 , . PHYSOPODA.

DD. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like.

E. Wings entirely or for the greater part clothed with scales.

Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 191.. . LEPIDOPTERA.

EE. Wings naked, transparent, or thinly clothed with hairs,

F. Mouth-parts arising from the hinder part of the lower

surface of the head, and consisting of bristle-like organs

inclosed in a jointed sheath. (Homoptera?) p. 121.

HEMIPTERA.

FF. Mouth-parts in normal position. Mandibles not
bristle-like.

G. Wings net-veined, with many veins and cross-veins.
H. Tarsi consisting of less than five segments.

I. Antennae inconspicuous, awl-shaped, short and
slender.

J. First and second pairs of wings nearly tha
same length ; tarsi three-jointed, p. 89.

ODONATA.

JJ. Second pair of wings either small or wanting;
tarsi four-jointed, p. 86 EPHEMERIDA

II. Antennae usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform
clavate, capitate, or pectinate.

J. Tarsi two- or three-jointed.

K. Second pair of wings the smaller, p. 98.

CORRODENTIA.

KK. Second pair of wings broader, or at least
of the same size as the first pair. p. 93.

PLECOPTERA.
JJ. Tarsi four-jointed ; wings equal, p. 95.

ISOPTERA.
HH. Tarsi consisting of five segments.

I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila-
ments. (Certain May-flies.} p. 86. EPHEMERIDA.

II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments.
J. Head prolonged into a trunk-like beak.

p. 184 MECOPTERA.

J. Head not prolonged into a beak. p. 175.

NEUROPTERA.

HEX A POD A. 8 1

GG. Wings with branching veins and comparatively few
cross-veins, or veinless.
H. Tarsi two- or three-jointed.

I. Posterior wings smaller than the anterior.

p. 98 CORRODENTI A.

II. Posterior wings as large as or larger than the
anterior ones. (Certain Stone-flies.) p. 93.

PLECOPTERA.
HH. Tarsi four- or five-jointed.

I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila-
ments. (Certain May-flies) p. 86. EPHEMERIDA.

II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments.
J. Prothorax horny. First wings larger than the

second, naked or imperceptibly hairy. Second
wings without, or with few, unusually simple,
veins. Jaws (mandibles) well developed. Palpi

small, p. 599 HYMENOPTERA.

JJ. Prothorax membranous or, at the most,
parchment-like. Second wings as large as or
larger than the first, folded lengthwise, with
many branching veins. First wings naked or
thinly clothed with hair. Jaws (mandibles) in-
conspicuous. Palpi long. Moth-like insects.
p. 186 TRICHOPTERA.

LIST OF ORDERS OF THE HEXAPODA.

THYSANURA. HEMIPTERA.

EPHEMERIDA. NEUROPTERA.

OUONATA. MECOPTERA.

PLECOPTERA. TRICHOPTERA.

ISOPTERA. LEPIDOPTERA.

CORRODENTIA. DlPTERA.

MALLOPHAGA. SIPHONAPTERA.

EUPLEXOPTERA COLEOPTERA.

ORTHOPTERA. HYMENOPTERA.
PHYSOPODA.

CHAPTER IV.

Order THYSANURA (Thys-a-nu'ra).

Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish-moths, and others.

The members of this order are wingless insects which
undergo no metamorphosis, the larval form being retained by
the adult. The mandibles and maxilla are retracted witliin
the cavity of the head, so that only their tips are visible ; they
have, however, some freedom of motion, and can be used for
biting and chewing soft substances. True compound eyes are
rarely present ; but in some genera there is a group of simple
eyes on each side of the head. The abdomen is sometimes
furnished zvith rudimentary legs.

Under stones and decayed leaves and wood, in the chinks

of bark, amongmoss, in damp
places, on snow or on pools,
^^^ or sometimes in houses, are
/ the members of this order to
be found. They are for the
most part very small insects,
but sometimes they are nu-
merous and lively enough to
make up for their lack in
size. They have no wings,
but they can either run very

FIG. 89. Mouth-parts of a Spring-tail. Ento- /_. , t TM

mobryidas. (Drawn by j. it stedman, fast or jump very far. Their

under the author's direction.) 8, labrum: 4.1 n r.

10, mandible; n, maxiiia; 12, labium; 12^ mouth-parts are usually fit-
ted for biting, but are very

difficult to study, because they are retracted within the

82

THYSANURA. 83

cavity of the head, and also on account of the small size of
the insects. Figure 89 represents them in place in the
head, and also each separately.

In certain respects these insects represent a connecting-
link between the other six-footed insects (Hexapoda) and
the Myriapods ; for many of the Thysanura have rudiments
of legs on the abdomen. It is believed, therefore, that they
are much like the first insects that appeared on the earth
in ancient geological times.

The Thysanura undergo no metamorphosis, the young
resembling the adult in form.

The name of the order is from two Greek words:
thysanos, a tassel ; and onra, the tail.

The Thysanura include two distinct types of insects ;
these are classed as suborders, and can be distinguished by
the following table :

TABLE OF THE SUBORDERS OF THE THYSANURA.

A. With bristle-like and many-jointed appendages at the caudal end
of the body (in a single genus these appendages are in the form of
forceps, Fig. 91), and without a sucker on the ventral side of the
abdomen, p. 83 CINURA.

AA. With a forked sucker on the ventral side of the first abdominal
segment. Abdomen with a springing apparatus near its caudal
end, or without appendages, p. 84 COLLEMBOLA.

Suborder ClNURA (Ci-nu'ra).

The Bristle-tails.

Often the careful housekeeper sees in the ironing-basket,
or upon the book-shelf where she is dusting, a flash of light
like a tiny thread of quicksilver, that usually vanishes as soon
as seen.

If she is experienced she knows that this streak of light is
a little animal, half an inch long, whose body is clothed in
shining scales like those of a fish. Hence she calls it a Fish-
moth. Its scientific name is Lepisma saccharina ; (Le-pis'ma
sac-cha-ri'na) ; it is especially abundant in warm climates,

8 4

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

and often does damage to starched clothing, book-bindings,
and sometimes loosens wall-paper by eating out the paste.
Under a microscope the Fish-moth shows beautiful markings

FlG. 91. Jaf-yx solifugus.
(After Lubbock.)

FIG. 90. Lepisma sac-
charina. (After Lub-
bock.)

FIG. 92. Ventral aspect
of Afachilis, showing
appendages.

on the shining scales ; and at the caudal end of the body are
three long bristle-like appendages (Fig. 90), which suggest
the common name Bristle-tail applied to members of this
suborder. Figure 91 represents Japyx (Ja'pyx), a Bristle-
tail in which the caudal appendages are in the form of horny
forceps; and Figure 92 represents the lower side of MacJiilis
(Mach'i-lis), another Bristle-tail, found under stones and
loose bark ; this genus has rudimentary abdominal legs as
shown in the figure.

Suborder CoLLEMBOLA (Col-lem'bo-la).
The Spring-tails.

In the Spring in the Northern States, on bright sunny
days when it is thawing, one often sees upon the snow thou-
sands of tiny dark specks. In other places pools of still

THYSANURA. 8$

water appear to be covered by a moving mass of minute
grains which become more active when disturbed. These
masses as well as the dark specks on snow consist of thou-
sands of little creatures that are provided with a wonderful
means of jumping. There is on the end of the body a tail-like
organ that is bent under when the insect is at rest, and that
reaches almost to the head ; this when suddenly straightened
throws the insect high in the air and several feet away. This
action is like a spring-board jump, only these little fellows
always carry their spring-boards with them, and have thus
won the name of Spring-tails. The species upon snow, called
the Snow-flea, AcJwrutes nivicola (Ach-o-ru'tes ni-vic'o-la),
sometimes proves a nuisance in maple sugar-bushes by get-
ting into the sap. Through a micro-
scope a Spring-tail appears very ab-
surd, it has long antennae and large,
dark eye-spots on the face, which, to-
gether with the longhair that sticks
forward on the head and thorax,
give the creature a look of solemn

FIG. ^.Paplrius fitscus. (After

fierceness. Different species may Lubbock.)

be found at almost any time of the year in damp places.
Figure 93 represents one of these. In many forms the
body is much more slender than in that figured.

CHAPTER V.

Order EPHEMERIDA (Eph-e-mer'i-da).

The May-flies.

The members of this order have delicate membranous wings,
with a fine network of veins ; the fore wings are large, and
the hind wings are much smaller or wanting. The mouth-
parts are rudimentary. The metamorphosis is incomplete.

The name of this order is from
the Greek word ephemeras, lasting
but a day. It was given to these in-
sects on account of the shortness of
their lives after reaching the adult
state.* The May-flies are easily dis-
tinguished from other net-winged in-
sects by the peculiar shape of the
wings and the relative sizes of the two
pairs (Fig. 94).

The mouth-parts are nearly want-
ing, as these insects eat nothing in
the adult state ; the antennae are very
small ; the abdomen is long, soft, and
terminated by two or three many-
F.G. 94.-May.fly. jointed, thread-like appendages. In

their metamorphoses these insects differ from all others in
molting once after they have acquired wings fitted for flight.
This order includes only a single family.

* We have not adopted the name Plectoptera, which has been proposed
for these insects, on account of its similarity to Plecoptera.

86

EPHEMERIDA. 87

Family EPHEMERIDA (Eph-e-mer'i-dae).

The May-flies.

In river or lake towns, during the warm evenings of late
spring or early summer, the electric lights or street lamps are
often darkened by myriads of insects that dash against them,
and the pavements are made slippery by their dead bodies
which have been trampled under foot. They are not ihe ordi-
nary night-flying moths: if an individual of the thousands
that cling to the posts and buildings in the vicinity of the
light be examined, it will prove to be a delicate creature with
dainty, trembling wings and two or three long,
white, thread-like organs on the end of its body ;
the body itself is so transparent that the blood
within can be seen pulsating. The front
wings are large and finely netted, and the
hind wings are small or absent (Figs. 94, 95). FlG a '
So fragile are these pale beings that they seem Mayfly,
like phantoms rather than real insects. No wonder that
poets have sung of them as the creatures that live only a
day. It is true that their winged existence lasts often
only a day or even a few hours ; but they have another
life, of which the poet knows nothing. Down on the
bottom of a stream, feeding on mud, water-plants, or other
small insects, lives a little nymph with delicate, fringed
gills along its sides and two or three long, many-jointed,
-ind often feathery appendages on the end of the body (Fig.
96). It has strong legs and can both walk and
swim. After about the ninth molt there may be
twenty molts in all there appear on its thorax
four little sacs which are the beginnings of wings ;
with each molt these grow larger, until finally the
last skin of the water-nymph is shed, and gills and
mouth-parts are all left behind, and the insect
comes forth, a winged May-fly. But there is still

Fio.96. Nymph

of May-fly, another change to be undergone. .he insect
has not yet reached the adult state. After flying a

88 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

short distance it alights and sheds its skin again, a thin layer
coming off from all parts of its body, even from its wings.
After this the delicate creature is more fragile than before.
It now has but one duty to perform in its brief life in the
air, and that is to lay its eggs. These are sometimes laid
on the surface of the water, and sometimes the mother wraps
her wings about her like a diving-bell and goes down into
the water and deposits her eggs on stones. The life of the
nymph is from one to three years, according to the species.

CHAPTER VI.

Order ODONATA (Od-o-na'ta).

The Dragon-flics and the Damsel-flics.

The members of this order have four membranous wings,
which are finely netted wit Ji veins ; the hind wings arc as large
or larger than the fore wings ; and each wing has near the
middle of the front margin a joint-like structure, the nodus.
The moutli-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis
is incomplete.

The name of this order is evidently from the Greek
word odous, a tooth ; but the reason for applying it to
these insects is obscure.

The Odonata are easily recognized by the form of their
wings, which are long and narrow ; and possess near the
middle of the front margin of each a little notch and a
strong cross-vein. This structure resembles in appearance
a joint, and is consequently named the nodus.

The mouth-parts are fitted for biting, these insects be-
ing carnivorous and voracious feeders in the adult state.
Both the upper lip and the lower lip are large, and the
two nearly enclose the jaws when at rest.

The nymphs are all aquatic, and can be easily recog-
nized by the form of the labium, which is long and jointed,
and when extended reaches far out ; it is armed with pow-
erful hooks with which to seize their prey. The terminal
portion is broad ; and when the lip is folded back in the
position of rest, it presents an appearance which has sug-
gested for it the term mask.

89

9O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Like the adults, the nymphs are strictly carnivorous.
They feed on a great variety of insects ; and they also
destroy worms, crustaceans, fish-fry, and tadpoles.

There are two quite distinct types of insects included
in this order; these represent two suborders.

Suborder ANISOPTERA (An-is-op'te-ra).
The Dragon-flies.

The dragon-flies are easily distinguished by the relative
size of the two pairs of wings, and by the attitude of the
wings when at rest (Fig. 97). The hind wings are larger

FlG. 97. A dragon-fly.

than the fore wings and are of a somewhat different shape ;
the name Anisoptera, from the Greek anisos, unequal, and
pteron, wing, refers to this fact. But the most striking
characteristic is the fact that the wings are extended
horizontally when at rest.

Darning-needles, devil's-needles, snake-doctors, spin-
dies, and dragon-flies are some of the names given to these
insects which dart back and forth over streams and wet
places, their rapidly moving wings throwing out gleams
of metallic color as they go. Still more beautiful are they
when at rest, their wings wide-spread above the abdomen,
and as rigid and motionless as if made of iridescent glass;

ANISOPTERA.

and their great compound eyes shining like gold or pre-
cious stones. But for all their terrible names, dragon-flies
are entirely innocent of any harm to mankind. They
neither sew up people's ears, as northern children think;
nor bring dead snakes to life, as colored people in the
South believe; but they are very fierce enemies to their
insect kindred. Their long, narrow, closely netted wings
are strong, carrying them swiftly ; and their jaws are
powerful, and their appetites good ; so it is an unfortunate
insect that falls in their way. The fact that they destroy
mosquitoes has attracted much attention
of late ; but they feed upon a great variety
of insects ; and the larger species habitu-
ally eat the smaller ones.

The eggs of dragon-flies are laid in
water or fastened to aquatic plants. The
nymphs present a striking peculiarity of
the respiratory system ; very large tra-
chese extend to the rectum, and their
branches penetrate its wall and end in
a complicated series of tracheal gills in
the cavity of the rectum. The insect
alternately draws water into this cavity
and expels it; and thus the air in these
tracheae is purified. This process also
helps the insect in swimming, for the
water may be expelled with such force that the whole body
is sent forward. The full-grown nymph leaves the water
to undergo its last molt ; and the exuviae are often found
clinging to objects near the water (Fig. 98).

Suborder ZYGOPTERA (Zy-gop'te-ra).

The Damsel-flies.

The damsel-flies differ from the dragon-flies in that the
two pairs of wings are similar in form and are either folded

FIG. g8. Exuviae of
nymph of dragon-fly.

9 2

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

parallel with the abdomen when at rest (Fig. 99) or are up-
tilted. The head is transverse, each eye being borne by a
lateral prolongation of the head. The females possess an

FIG. 99. A damsel-fly.

FIG. loo. Nymph of a
damsel-fly.

FIG. 101.
Tracheal gill
of nymph of
damsel-fly.

ovipositor by means of which the eggs are placed in the
stems of aquatic plants, sometimes beneath the surface of
the water.

The name of the suborder is from the Greek zygon,
yoke, and pteron, wing ; it probably refers to the fact that
the wings are brought together when at rest.

Unlike the dragon-flies, the damsel-flies are compara-
tively feeble in their flight. They are found near the
margins of streams and ponds, in which the nymph stages
are passed.

The nymphs of damsel-flies (Fig. 100) possess leaflike
tracheal gills at the caudal end of the body. One of these
is represented greatly enlarged by Fig. 101.

CHAPTER VII.
Order PLECOPTERA (Ple-cop'te-ra).

The Stone-flics.

The members of this order have four membranous %vings,
^vitJl comparatively few or with many cross-veins ; the hind
wings are much larger than the fore wings, and are folded in
plaits and lie upon the abdomen when at rest. The mouth-
parts are of the biting type of structure, but are frequently
poorly developed. The metamorphosis is incomplete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words : plccos,
plaited; and ptero n, a wing. It refers to the way in which
the hind wings are folded when at rest.

Although the mouth-parts are of the biting type of struc-
ture, the mandibles are often small, flat, and membranous,
and evidently of little use. It is probable that as a rule
the adults eat but little. The antennae are long, tapering,
and many-jointed ; and in most species the caudal end
of the abdomen is furnished with two many-jointed bristles.
The nymphs are aquatic.

This order includes only a single family.

Family PERLID^E (Per'li-dse).
77/i? Stone-flies.

Those boys fond of fishing know that a good place to
find bait is under stones in streams. And doubtless they
have often observed that in the swiftest portion of the stream
the turned-over stones have clinging to the lower surface

93

94

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

flat creatures from one-half inch or less to one and one half
inches in length. They cling so closely and are so nearly the
color of the stone that they look almost like fossils. Their
antennas and caudal bristles and three legs on each side
extend out like the rays of a star ; the six soft clumps of
white hair-like gills, one behind each leg, alone show that
they are not engraved upon the stone (Fig. 102). These
insects are the nymphs of the stone-flies, and are the favorite-
food of fishes, especially of brook trout. If a nymph is
fortunate enough to escape the fate of being a luncheon for
fish, when it is full-grown it crawls forth from the water and

FIG. 102. Nymph of Stone-
fly, Acroneura.

FIG. 103. Pieronarcys regalis.

transforms to a gray or greenish fly, with slender, closely
veined fore wings and wide, delicate hind wings (Fig. 103).
The cast nymph-skins are common objects on the banks of
the streams which these insects inhabit. Several of the
smaller species of the stone-flies appear in the winged state
upon snow in early spring, and often find their way into
houses.

CHAPTER VIII.

Order IsOPTERA (1-sop'te-ra).

The Termites or White-ants.

The members of this order are social insects. Each species
consists of several distinct castes, of which only the " Kings "
and the " Queens " are winged. These have four long, nar-
row wings, which are somewhat leathery in structure, and
which are furnished with numerous but more or less indistinct
veins. The two pairs of wings are similar in form and struc-
ture, and are laid flat upon the back when not In use. The
mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in-
complete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words : isos,
equal ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the two
pairs of wings are similar in form and structure.

The wings of the Termites (Ter'mites), although really
broad when compared to the size of the body, appear
narrow on account of their great length, being in many
cases more than twice as long as the entire body.

The order includes only a single family.

Family TERMITID.E (Ter-mit'i-dse).
The Termites or White-ants.

These interesting insects are not Ants, nor at all related
to them ; but they have been thus called because they have
certain social habits that are similar to those of true Ants.
They are more abundant in the tropics than here ; and

95

9 6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FIG. 104. Termes
jlapives, work'er.

FIG. 105. Termes
flavipes, soldier.

there build nests or mounds sometimes twelve feet high, or
make roundish nests several feet thick on trees. Our
Northern species (Termes flavipes) lives in old logs and
stumps, or under stones in the ground.

A remarkable thing about the White-ants is the way they
are divided into classes, each class fitted to do a certain work

for the colony^ First, there
is the class of workers (Fig.
104), which is constituted of
both sexes : they are wingless,
and of a dirty-white color,
and while they resemble true
ants somewhat, their waists
are thicker. Their business is
to bring food for everybody,
feed and bring up the young
termites, and build nests.
Second, there is the class
called soldiers (Fig. 105) : these too are of both sexes and
wingless, and look somewhat like the workers, only their
heads are tremendous in size, being often nearly as long as
the rest of the body, and their jaws are large and powerful.
Third, is the royal class called kings and queens. It would
have been better to have called them fathers and mothers,
as they are the parents of the colony, and do not rule it.
This class when grown have wings which lie flat upon the
back when at rest, and may be twice as long as the body.
In May or June in our common species this class swarms
forth from all the nests of the neighborhood. After a flight
of some distance the wings are shed, and a king chooses
some queen near him and proposes that they start a king-
dom of their own. But like mortal kings and queens they
cannot reign unless a kingdom is found for them, and so
millions of these royal pairs die because they have no sub-
jects. But sometimes a fortunate couple is discovered by
some termite workers, who at once take possession of the

ISOPTERA.

97

wanderers and provide them with food, and with shelter
in the shape of a large circular shallow cell. In this they
are really imprisoned, but are well cared
for. Soon the queen or mother begins
to develop eggs, and her body grows
enormously. Finally, it is nothing but
a huge sac filled with eggs, looking more
like a potato than anything else, and is
sometimes six or seven inches long (Fig.
106). Of course the poor queen cannot
move herself in the least, and if she were
not fed would soon starve ; but her king
remains devoted to her, and her ladies
and gentlemen in waiting do their best
to make her comfortable: they carry
away the eggs to other chambers as soon
as they are laid, then care for the eggs, and
feed the little ones when they are hatched.
The young termites are active, and re-
semble the adult in form. If a nest becomes queenless, and
the workers are unable to procure a queen, there are de-
veloped in the nest wingless sexual individuals, which are
termed complemental males and females. But as each com-
plemental female lays only a few eggs, it requires several to
take the place of a real queen.

All White-ants are miners, and avoid the light. They
build covered-ways wherever they wish to go. In hot
countries they are a terrible pest, as they feed upon wood,
and actually destroy buildings and furniture and libraries.
They leave merely the outside portion of what they feed
upon ; and they have been known to enter a table through
the bottom of the legs and to eat all the inner portions so
that a slight weight crushed it to the floor. In Florida they
do damage to orange and other trees by girdling them below
the surface of the ground.

FIG. 106. Queen white-
ant, Terntes gilvus.

CHAPTER IX.

Order CORRODENTIA (Cor-ro-den'ti-a).

The Psocids (Psocids) arid the Book-lice.

The vvinged members of this order have four membranous
wings, with the veins prominent ', but with comparatively few
cress veins; the fore wings are larger than the hind wings;
and both pairs when not in use are placed roof -like over the
body, being almost vertical, and not folded in plaits. The
month-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in-
complete.

The name of this order is from
the Latin corrodere, to gnaw, and
refers to the gnawing habits of these
insects.

The wings, especially the fore
wings, are often smoky in color or
F.G. ^j.-fiacus venous. variegated. The arrangement of the

veins of the wings (Fig. 107) differs in a striking manner
from that of any other biting insect.

The order includes two families, but representatives of
only one of them occur in the United States.

Family PSOCIDS (Psoc'i-dae).
The Psocids (Pso'cids) and the Book-lice.

Books may be old and out of date from our standpoint,
but still be of vital importance to others. Take down from
the shelf a time-yellowed book and open its neglected leaves

98

CORRODENTIA.

99

and watch the pale tiny creatures that scurry across its
pages; examine one of them with a lens, look veil at his
alert, knowing, black eyes, and we are sure you will believe
that he is in search of real literature, and not merely a feeder
upon paper, as we are taught. Anyway, scientists have con-
cluded that these insects look wise enough to bear the name
Atropos divinatoria (At'ro-pos di-vin-a-to'ri-a),
or the Divining Atropos (Fig. 108). They
are, however, more commonly called simply
book-lice.

f / L --- J \

Some members of the family Psocidae do
not live in books, but feed upon lichens that
are found on the trunks of trees and on fences,
often a great number being grouped together.
Many of these have wings, and look like plant-lice. (Fig. 107).
The eggs are laid in heaps on leaves and branches, and are
covered with a tissue of threads ; for the Psocids have the
power of spinning silk similar to that spun by spiders.

108.

CHAPTER X.

Order MALLOPHAGA (Mal-loph'a-ga).

The Bird-lice.

The members of this order arc wingless parasitic insects,
with biting mouth-parts. Their metamorphosis is incomplete.

The name of the order is from two Greek words : mallos,
wool ; and phagein, to eat. Although some species infest
sheep and goats, feeding upon their wool, by far the greater
number live among the feathers of birds. It is due to this
fact that the common name Bird-lice is applied to the entire
group.

The order includes several families; but we will not take
the space to define them.

The Bird-lice are well known to most people that have
pet birds or who keep poultry. They differ from the true
Lice in having biting mouth-parts, and in feeding upon
either feathers, hair, or the skin ; while the true Lice have
sucking mouth-parts and feed upon blood.

It is to free themselves from these pests that hens wallow
in the dust. When poultry are kept in closed houses they
should be provided with a " dust-bath." All poultry-houses
should be cleaned at least twice a year, and the old straw
burned. Sprinkling powdered sulphur in the nests and oiling
th<^ perches with kerosene will tend to keep the pests in
check. If a poultry-house becomes badly infested, it should
be cleaned thoroughly, and every part whitewashed ; and
the poultry should be dusted with Buhach or Persian insect
powder (Pyretkruw).

100

MALLOPHAGA

101

Fig. 109 represents Go modes stylifer (Gon-i-o'des styl'i
fer), a species which infests the turkey; and Fig. no,

FIG. 109. Goniodes stylifer. FIG. no. Trichodectes scalar is.

(.From Law.) (From Law.)

TricJiodectes scalaris (Trich-o-dec'tes sca-la'ris), a species
infesting the ox.

CHAPTER XL

Order EUPLEXOPTERA (Eu-plex-op'te-ra).

The Earwigs.

The members of this order have ttsttally four wings ;
the first pair of which are leathery, very small, without veins,
and when at rest meet in a straight line on the back; the
second pair are large, with radiating veins, and when at rest
are folded both lengthwise and crosswise. The month-parts are
formed for biting. The caudal end of the body is furnished
with a pair of appendages which resemble forceps. The meta-
morphosis is incomplete.

The name of the order is from three Greek words : eu t
well ; pleko, to fold ; and pteron, wing. The word is not well
formed, but it cannot now be changed. It refers to the
unusual folding of the hind wings. This order is termed
the Dermaptera by many entomologists, but this name was
first applied to certain other insects, and so should not be
used for these. The fore wings of these insects resemble
the wing-covers of beetles, and like them differ greatly from
the usual form. The hind wings are very different from
those of any other insects. Figure ill represents one of

these; they are furnished with radi-
ating veins, which extends from a
point some distance from the base
of the wings. When the wing is not
in use that part over which these
FIG. in. wing of Earwig. veins extend is folded in plaits like a
fan, after which the wing is folded twice crosswise. Al-

102

EUPLEXOP TERA.

103

though these insects bear some resemblance to beetles, they
differ from them markedly in having an incomplete meta-
morphosis. The order includes only a single family.

Family FoRFlcULlDyE (For-fi cu'li dae).
7 he Eanvigs.

These are long and narrow insects, resembling rove-
beetles in the form of the body and
in the shortness of the wing - covers,
but easily distinguished by having a
pair of forceps at the end of the body
(Fig. 112). The common name, earwig f
has reference to a widely spread fancy
that these insects creep into the ears
of sleeping persons.

The earwigs are rare in the North-
eastern United States, but are more
often found in the South and on the
Pacific coast. In Europe they are com-
mon, and are often troublesome pests,
feeding upon the corollas of flowers,
fruits, and other vegetable substances.

I

FIG. ii2. An Earwig

CHAPTER XII.
Order ORTHOPTERA (Or-thop'te-rd).

Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and of hers.

The members of this order have four wings : the first pair
are thickened, and overlap when at rest ; the second pair are
thinner, and are folded in plaits like a fan. The mouth-parts
are formed for biting. The metamorpJiosis is incomplete.

The order Orthoptera includes some of the very common
and best-known insects. The most familiar representatives
are those named above.

Although the song of the Katydid and the chirp of
crickets are most often associated with recollections of pleas-
ant evenings spent in the country, we cannot forget that to
members of this order are due some of the most terrible
insect scourges man has known. The devastations caused
by great swarms of migratory locusts are not only matters of
historical record, but are too painfully known to many of our
own generation in the Western States.

With the exception of a single family {Mantidce), the
members of this order are, as a rule, injurious to vegetation ;
and many species are quite apt to multiply to such an extent
that their destruction of vegetation becomes serious.

The name of the order is from two Greek words: orthos,
straight; andflteron, a wing. It refers to the longitudinal
folding of the hind wings.

In the Orthoptera the two pairs of wings differ in struc-
ture. The fore wings are parchment-like, forming covers for
the more delicate hind wings. These wing-covers have re-

104

ORTHOPTERA. 10$

ceived the special name tegmina (teg'mi-na); they are furnished
with a fine network of veins, and overlap at the tip at least.
There are many species in which the wings are rudimentary,
even in the adult state. Such adults resemble nymphs ; but
in the case of the jumping Orthoptera, where this peculiar-
ity most often occurs, nymphs can be distinguished by the
fact that the rudimentary hind wings are outside of the fore
wings, instead of beneath them, as in the adult state.

This order includes only six families. We are able, there-
fore, to discuss all of them in this work. The following
synopsis will aid the student in fixing in his mind the more
important characteristics of each family.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES OF THE ORTHOPTERA.

THE RUNNING ORTHOPTERA. The body is oval when seen from
above, and is very flat; the three pairs of legs are similar in
form ; the insects run rapidly, p. 106 BLATTID^E.

THE GRASPING ORTHOPTERA. The prothorax is very long and
slender ; the first pair of legs are very different from the others,
and are fitted for grasping, p. 106 MANTIDjE.

THE WALKING ORTHOPTERA. The body is very long and slender;
the three pairs of legs are similar in form, and are also very
long and slender ; the insects walk slowly, p. 108. . . . PHASMID^;.

THE JUMPING ORTHOPTERA. The hind legs are very much stouter
or very much longer, or both stouter and longer, than the
middle pair, being fitted for jumping. This group includes three
families :

The Short-horned Grasshoppers, or Loc^lsts. The antennae are
shorter than the body. The ovipositor of the female is short and
composed of four separate plates. The tarsi are three-jointed.

p. 108 ACRIDIDJE.

The Long-horned Grass/toppers. The antennae are very slender
and longer than the body. (This is also true of the crickets.)
The ovipositor is sword-shaped. The tarsi are four-jointed.

p. 112 LOCUSTID.E.

The Crickets. The antennae, like those of the long- horned grass-
hoppers, are very slender and longer than the body, except in
the mole-crickets. The ovipositor is spear-shaped when exerted.
The tarsi are three-jointed, p. 115 GRYLLIDJE.

io6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family BLATTID.E (Blat'ti-dae).
The Cockroaches.

After every one is in bed at night and all is quiet in the
kitchen where there are water-pipes, often a throng of little
creatures come forth from hiding-places and, like brownies.,
take possession of everything. They race around every
where, trying to find something to eat ; they do not care
much whether it is raw or cooked, but will devour almost
anything that comes in reach of their greedy jaws. They
eat book-bindings and bedbugs, if they find them, with
equal alacrity ; and sometimes they get bold enough to
appear in broad daylight. The little, pale brown rascal called
the Croton-bug, which came to us from Europe and infests

the vicinity of the pipes
of the water systems of
many of our cities, is es-
pecially bold and impu-
dent (Fig. 1 13). In fact,
in the North our native
cockroaches are mostly

FIG. 114. A Wing-
less Cockroach.

FIG. 115. Ootheca of a Cock-
roach.

F G. 113. The

Croton-bug.

respectable, well-behaved insects, living in fields and forests
under sticks and stones, the emigrant cockroaches being the
offenders. Many cockroaches are wingless (Fig. 114). The
eggs of a cockroach are laid, all at once, enclosed in a
sort of pod which is more or less bean-shaped (Fig. 115).
Thorough and frequent dusting with insect-powder in the
cracks about the kitchen will rid a house of these pests.

Family MANTID.E (Man'ti-dae).
The Praying Mantes, or Mule-killers.

Certainly they are pious-looking fellows, with their front
legs clasped together in front of their meek, alert faces, and

OkTHOPTF.RA.

IO7

it is no wonder that they are called Praying Mantes. But
the only prayer that could ever enter the mind of a Mantis

FIG. 116. Phasmomantis Carolina.

would be that some unwary insect might come
near enough for him to grab it with his hypo-
critical claws, and so get a meal. Devil-horses*
rear-horses, and camel-crickets are other names
applied to these insects, because of the long,
slender prothorax which makes them look like
tiny giraffes. They are also called mule-killers*
from the absurd superstition that the dark-col-
ored saliva they eject from their mouths is fatal
to the mule. But they are absolutely harmless
to both man and beast. They are mostly tropical
insects, and often have wings that resemble the
leaves of trees. Our common species, Phasmo-
mantis Carolina (Phas- mo-man 'tis) (Fig. 116), is
confined to the Southern States. The eggs are _ FIG - "7-

Egg-mass of

laid in masses and overlaid with a hard covering a Mantis -
of silk ; the top of the masses having the appearance of be-
ing braided (Fig. 117).

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family PHASMIDJE (Phas'mi-dae).
The Walking-sticks.

The rambler in forests is often
surprised to discover that a part
of the casually-plucked branch in
his hand is alive. A certain twig
that was stiff and motionless sud-
denly, when disturbed, walks off
on long slender legs, as awkwardly
as if it had never tried to walk
before. Strange and uncanny
creatures are these walking-sticks
with their long pointed bodies
and with legs colored and looking
exactly like twigs and leaf-peti-
oles. In the tropics their resem-
blance to foliage is made more
perfect by wings which are veined
like leaves. In the Northern States
we have only one common species,
DiapJieromera femorata, (Di-aph-e-
rom'e-ra fem-o-ra'ta), and that is
wingless (Fig. 118). Walking-
sticks feed upon foliage. Their
eggs, which are large, are dropped
on the ground under the trees by
FIG. us. A walking-stick. the mother, who trusts entirely
to fate to preserve them.

Family ACRIDID^: (A-crid'i-dse).
Locusts, or Short-horned Grasshoppers.

Every country lad is familiar with the appearance of
grasshoppers. But there are many kinds of these insects,
representing at least two distinct families. The family
Acrididae, or Locusts, includes those grasshoppers in which

ORTHOPTERA.

tht antennae, are shorter than the body, and in which the
ovipositor of the female is short and made up of four sepa-
rate plates (Fig. 119). The tarsi are three-jointed; and on

FIG. 119. Side view of Locust with wings removed.

each side of the first segment of the abdomen there is a cir-
cular plate which is believed to be an ear.

It is to these insects that the term locust is properly ap-
plied. For the locusts of which we read in the Bible, and in
other books published in the older countries, are members
of this family. Unfortunately in the United States the
term locust has been applied to the Periodical Cicada, a
member of the order Hemiptera, described later. And,
what is more unfortunate, the scientific name Locustidae was
given long ago to the next family and cannot now be
changed. It should be remembered, therefore, that the
locusts do not belong to the Locustida::.

Locusts lay their eggs in oval masses and cover them
with a tough substance. Some species lay their eggs in the
ground. The female makes a hole in the ground with her
ovipositor, which is a good digging-tool. Some species even
make holes in fence-rails, logs, and stumps ; then, after the
eggs are laid, the hole is covered up with a plug of gummy
materials. There is but one generation a year, and in most
cases the winter is passed in the egg-state. This family is
of great economic importance, as the members of it usually
appear in great numbers in every region where plants grow,
and often do much damage.

The males of many locusts are able to produce sounds.
This is done in two ways: First, certain species rub the
inner surface of the hind femora, upon which there is a row
of minute spines, against the outer surface of the wing-covers.

HO THE STUDY OF IN 'SECTS.

In this case each wing-cover serves as a fiddle, and each hind-
leg as a fiddle-bow. Second, other species rub together the
upper surface of the front edge of the hind-wings and the
under surface of the wing-covers. This is done while the
locust is flying, and the result is a crackling sound.

There are very many species of locusts in the United
States. We have space to refer to only a few here.

The most familiar member of the family is the Red-
legged Locust, Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Me-lan'o-plus)

(Fig. 120). It is more abun-
dant than any other species
throughout the United States,
except in the high dry lands
of the central part of the

. cont i nen t. Here the Rocky

Mountain Locust, Melanoplus sprctus, abounds. This spe-
cies closely resembles the red-legged locust, except that it
has longer wings. It is this insect that sometimes migrates
into the lower and more fertile regions of the Mississippi
Valley and does such great damage. It will be remembered
that at one time it almost produced a famine in Kansas and
the neighboring States. Fortunately the young of this
insect hatched in the low regions are not healthy, and die
before reaching maturity. Consequently the plagues caused
by the emigration of this insect are of short duration. There
are several other species of Melanoplus common in this
country, but they can be distinguished only by very careful
study.

The Clouded Locust, Eneoptolophus sordidus (En-cop-tol'-
o-phus sor'di-dus) (Fig. 121), is very common in the Eastern
United States during the
autumn. It abounds in
meadows and pastures, and
attracts attention by the
crackling sound made by

the males during flight. Its FlG -Enc ptoi phus
color is dirty brown, mottled with darker spots.

ORTHOPTERA.

Ill

The Carolina Locust, Dissosteira Carolina (Dis-sos-tei'ra),
is common throughout the United States and Canada, and
at the North is our largest species. It lives in roads and on
bare places, and its color matches the soil on which it lives.
It is usually pale yellowish or reddish-brown or slate color,
with small dusky spots. The hind wings are black, with a
broad yellow edge. It measures from one inch and a half
to nearly two inches in length.

The Sprinkled Locust, Chrysochraon conspersuin (Chry-

soch'ra-on con-sper'sum) (Fig.
Here the wings are a little
shorter than the abdomen in
the males, and much shorter in
the females.

In the South and in the

122), is a common species.

FiG. ^.-

a rar g inicolU.

FlG m.Chrysochraon conspersum.

West we find several
genera in which the body
is very long and slender.
Lcptysma marginicolle
(Lep-tys'ma mar-gin-i-

serve as an illustration of the form of these insects.

There is a group of small locusts of which Tcttix (Fig.
124) is an example, which is remarkable for the shape of
the pronotum. This projects backward like
a little roof over the wings, and often
extends beyond the end of the abdomen.
With these insects the wing-covers are in FlG - 12 -- Tettix -
the shape of small rough scales, the wings being protected
by the large pronotum. These insects are commonly found
in low, wet places, and on the borders of streams. Their
colors are usually dark, and are often protective, closely
resembling that of the soil upon which they occur. These
locusts are very active, jumping great distances.

112

THE STUDY OF INSECTS,

Family LOCUSTID^; (Lo-cus'ti-dse).
The Long-horned Grasshoppers.

Any one that is in the habit of lying in the tall grass of
meadows or pastures and watching the insects that can be
seen there is sure to be familiar with certain green grass-
hoppers, which attract attention by the extreme delicacy
and great length of their antennae. These are our most
common members of the Locustidae. The
antennae are much more slender than with
the short-horned grasshoppers or locusts, and
much longer, exceeding the body in length.
The tarsi are four-jointed. The ear-like
organs, when present, are situated near the
base of the fore tibiae (Fig. 125), and the
ovipositor is sword-shaped.

In those species of this family in which the wings are
well developed we find the males provided with an elabo-

FIG. 126. Wing-cover of
Male Meadow Grasshopper.

FIG. 127. Wingf-cover of
Female Meadow Grasshopper.

rate musical apparatus by means of which they call their
mates. This consists of a peculiar arrangement of the veins
and cells of a portion of each wing-cover near its base. This
arrangement differs in the different species ; but in each it is

ORTHOPTERA. 113

such that by rubbing the wing-covers together they are made
to vibrate, and thus produce the sound. Figure 126 repre-
sents a wing-cover of the male of a common meadow grass-
hopper, and Figure 127 that of a female of the same
species.

In order to facilitate the study of this family the more
common representatives can be arranged in four groups :
The Meadow Grasshoppers, the Katydids, the Cricket-like
Grasshoppers, and the Shield-backed Grasshoppers.

I. The Meadoiv Grasshoppers.
Under this head can be classed
our most common members of
the family ; they abound upon
grass in meadows and in moist

places. Figure 1 28 represents one F ' G< *>-

of these insects.

II. The Katydids. The chances are that he who lies
awake of a midsummer night must listen whether he wishes
to do so or not, to an oft-repeated, rasping song that says,
" Katy did, Katy did ; she did, she didn't," over and over
again. There is no use of wondering what Katy did or
didn't do, for no mortal will ever know. If, when the dawn
comes, the listener has eyes sharp enough to discern one of
these singers among the leaves of some neighboring tree,
never a note of explanation will he get. The beautiful, finely-
veined wings folded close over the body keep the secret hid-
den, and the long antennas, looking like threads of living
silk, will wave airily above the droll, green eyes as much as to
say, " Wouldn't you like to know?" The katydids live only
on trees, and sing only during the night. There are several
species of katydids common in the United States. The
Western and Southern species, called the Angular-winged
Katydid, Microcentrum retinervis (Mic-ro-cen'trum ret-i'ner-
vis) lays its eggs in neat rows upon leaves and branches ;
the eggs are oval, and each overlaps its neighbor slightly

9

114

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

(Fig. 129). In many sections where the katydids do not
occur, the song of the Snowy Tree-cricket, described later, is
often mistaken for that of a Katydid.

FIG. 129. The Angular-winged Katydid and its eggs.

III. The Cricket -like Grasshoppers. These are wingless,
and resemble crickets in form. The most common members of

this group belong to the genus
Ceuthophilus (Ceu-thoph/i-lus)
(Fig. 130). These insects are
found under stones and rub-
bish, especially in woods.
Very closely allied to them are
the colorless and blind Cave-crickets, Hadencecus (Had-e-
nce'cus), found in caves.

FIG. 130. Ceuthophilus.

ORTHOPTERA. 11$

IV. The Shield backed Grasshoppers. These are also
wingless, and dull-colored insects, which bear some resem-
blance to crickets. They
present, however, a
queer appearance, due
to the pronotum extend-
ing backward over the
rest of the thorax, like
a sun-bonnet worn over
the shoulders with the back side forward. This group is repre-
sented in the Eastern half of the United States by Thyreo-
notus (Thyr-e-o-no'tus) (Fig. 131). In the regions west of the
Mississippi River occur the " Western Crickets," belonging
to the genus Anabrus (An'a-brus), and on the Pacific coast

FIG. \y.Stenopelmatus.

there are large, clumsy creatures with big heads, that live
under stones and in loose soil, and- are popularly known as
Sand-crickets. These belong to the genus Stenopelmatus
(Sten-o-pel-ma'tus) (Fig. 132).

Family GRYLLID.E (Gryrii-dae).
The Crickets.

The crickets differ from both families of grasshoppers in
having the wing-covers flat above and bent sharply down at
the edge of the body like a box-cover, instead of meeting in
a ridge above the body like a roof. The antenna:; are long

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

and slender, like those of the Locustidae ; but the form of
the ovipositor is quite different in this family, being spear-
shaped, instead of sword-like.

The males of the crickets have musical organs which are
even more elaborate than those of the Katydids and meadow
grasshoppers. Here all that part of each wing-cover that
lies on the back is occupied by them. This gives the males
a very different appearance from the females, the wing-
covers of that sex being veined simply.

During the latter part of summer and in the autumn the
air is filled with the chirping of crickets. It is an interest-
ing thing to watch one of these fiddlers calling his mate.
By moving quietly in the direction from which the sound
comes, and stopping whenever the insect stops chirping,
but moving on again when he renews his song, one can get
near enough to see how he does it. This can be done even
in the night with the aid of a lantern, as the crickets do not
seem to mind lights.

Figure 133 represents the musical apparatus of a cricket.

FIG. 133. Tegmina of male GryUus.

From this it will be seen that the large veins divide the wing-
covers into disk-like membranous spaces. If the principal
vein which extends diagonally across the base of the wing-

OR THOP TERA. 1 1 7

cover be examined with a microscope, it will be seen to be
furnished with ridges like those of a file (Fig. 133, b). On
the inner margin of the \ving-cover, a short distance toward
the base from the end of the principal vein, there is a
hardened portion which may be called the scraper. This is
shown enlarged at c in the figure. Each \ving-cover is there-
fore provided with a file and a scraper. When the cricket
wishes to make his call, he elevates his wing-covers at an
angle of about forty-five degrees with the body ; then hold-
ing them in such a position that the scraper of one rests
upon the file of the other, he moves the wing-covers back
and forth sidewise so that the file and the scraper rasp upon
each other. This throws the wing-covers into vibration,
and produces the call.

There are comparatively few species of crickets, but they
represent three quite distinct groups. These can be dis-
tinguished as the Mole Crickets, the True Crickets, and the
Tree Crickets.

I. The Mole Crickets. These are , ,

called Mole Crickets because they burrow
in the ground like moles. There are
species belonging to the next group, the
true crickets, which burrow in the ground ;
but the mole-crickets are pre-eminently
burrowers. The form of the body is
suited to this mode of life. The front
tibiae, especially, are fitted for digging;
they are greatly broadened, and shaped
somewhat like hands, or the feet of a
mole. Figure 134 represents one of
these insects. The mole-crickets feed
upon the tender roots of various plants,
and where they are common they are

c^rimic r^cfc FIG. 134

SeriOUS peSUS. tarea/is.

II. The True Crickets. To this group belong our com-
mon, black acquaintances that peep at us from the cracks

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

in the paving, or jump across our paths when we walk in

the fields. They are com-
mon everywhere; some spe-
cies even live in our houses.
They usually feed upon plants,
but are sometimes predaceous.

FIG. 135. Gryllus abbreviatus.

The

eggs are

laid in the au-

tumn, usually in the ground, and are hatched in the follow,
ing summer. The greater number of the old crickets die on
the approach of winter ; a few, however, survive the cold
season. Figure 135 represents the female of a species com.
mon in the East. In this species the wings are shorter than
usual.

III. The Tree Crickets. The common name of this
group was suggested by the fact that these
crickets are very apt to inhabit trees ; but
they occur also on shrubs, or even on high
herbs and tall grass. The most abundant
species in the East is the Snowy Tree-
cricket, (EcantJius niveus (CE-can'thus niv'e-
us). This is a delicate, whitish-green insect,
that lives upon shrubs or plants. The
female often does serious damage by laying
her eggs in raspberry canes, causing them to
die above the puncture. Canes thus in-
jured should be cut and burned in the
early spring before the eggs are hatched. Figure 136 shows
the male, his closely folded wings showing beneath his
delicate transparent wing-covers. The female has her wing-
covers wrapped closely around her body, making her look
much narrower than the male.

FIG. \-^6.CEcantkus
nii'eus, male.

CHAPTER XIII.
Order PHYSOPODA (Phy-sop'o-da).

Tkrips.

The members of this order have four ivings ; these are
similar in form, long, narrow, membranous, not folded, witli
but few or no veins, and only rarely ^vitll cross veins ; tliey
are fringed ^vith long hairs, and are laid horizontally along
the back when at rest. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The
mouth parts are probably used chiefiy for sucking; they are
intermediate in form between those of t lie sucking and those of
the biting insects (Fig. 138); the mandibles are bristle-like;
the maxilla are triangular, fiat, and furnished with palpi ;
and tiie labial palpi are also present. The tarsi are two-
jointed, bladder-like at tip, and witJiout claws.

Pull to pieces a clover-blossom or a daisy, and you will
probably find at the base of the florets many wee, black,
red, or yellowish insects. These are so small that it would
take a dozen or more placed end to end to measure an inch ;
and when disturbed they are apt to thrust the end of their
bodies up in the air as if they meant to sting, looking as
ferocious as such small insects can look. They are extremely
lively, leaping or taking flight with great agility. Under a
microscope their four narrow wings, delicately fringed all
around with long hairs, may be seen ; these wings are laid
flat down the back when at rest. The red ones are wingless,
and are the young of the black species. Some species eat
other insects, but most of them live upon vegetation. There
is one species, LimotJirips poapJiagus (Lim'o-thrips po-aph'a-

IIQ

I2O

THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

gus) that damages timothy and June-grass very much by
working in the upper joints. In the early summer the dead
and yellow heads of grasses thus destroyed may be seen
everywhere in grass-growing regions. Some species live
under the bark of trees. The accompanying figure repre-
sents one of these insects very greatly enlarged (Fig. 137).

FlG. 137. Thrift.

FIG. 138. Mouth-parts of Thrips. (Drawn by J.
M. Stedman, under the author's direction.) 8,
labrum; 10, mandible; n, maxilla; 12, labium.

The insect infesting grapes, called "The Thrips," is
not a Thrips at all, but a leaf-hopper belonging to the
Homoptera.

The name Physopoda is from two Greek words : physao,
to blow up, and potis, a foot. It refers to the curious
bladder-like feet of these insects. Figure 138 represents the
mouth-parts of Thrips.

CHAPTER XIV.
Order HEMIPTERA (He-mip'te-ra).

Bugs, Lice, Aphids, and otJiers.

The winged members of this order have four wings; in cne
sub-order t lie first pair of wings are thickened at the base, with
thinner extremities which overlap on the back ; in another
sub-order the first pair of zvings are of the same thickness
throughout, and usually slope at the sides of the body. The
month-parts are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is
incomplete.

The order Hemiplera includes many well-known pests:
here belong the true bugs, the lice, the aphids, the scale
insects, and many other forms injurious to plants. On the
other hand, some of the species are ranked among beneficial
insects on account of their predaceous habits ; while still
others, as the cochineal and lac insects, furnish us with
useful products.

The name Hemiptera is from two Greek words : hemi,
half; and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the form of
the first pair of wings in the true bugs. Here the basal half
of these organs is thickened somewhat like the wing-covers
of beetles, only the terminal half being wing-like. The
second pair of wings are membranous, and when at rest are
folded beneath the first pair.

The mouth-parts are formed for piercing and sucking.
Without dissection, they usually appear as a slender jointed
beak, Arising at the base of a shorter, pointed upper lip.
This beak consists of four bristles, enclosed in a fleshy,

121

122 7WE STUDY OF INSECTS.

jointed sheath (Fig. 139). Two of the bristles represent the
mandibles, and two the maxillae. The sheath is supposed
to consist of the labium and the grown-together labial palpi.
In their transformation the Hemiptera pass through an
incomplete metamorphosis ; the young nymphs resembling

FIG. 13 9.

Mouth-parts FIG. 140, a. Head of an heter- FIG. 140, l>. Head

of Bug. (Af- opterous insect. of an homopterous

ter Muhr.) insert.

the adults more or less closely in form, and the wings being
gradually developed at successive molts.

This order includes three well-marked groups, which are
ranked as suborders. The first of these, the Hetcroptera,
includes the true bugs. They are placed first, as we believe
they resemble the ancient Hemiptera the first to appear on
the earth more closely than the members of either of the
other suborders. The second suborder, the Parasitica, in-
cludes the lice. These insects are much lower in structure
than the Heteroptera ; but we believe that this simplicity
in structure is a result of degradation due to parasitic habits,
and therefore really represents a later development than
that shown by the Heteroptera. In other words, the lice
are probably descendants of some ancient form resembling
some of the existing Heteroptera. Among the Heteroptera
the bedbug exhibits a similar downward tendency. The
third suborder, the Homoptcra, includes some forms that

HEMIPTERA. 12$

are perhaps as primitive as any of the existing Heteroptera,
but, on the other hand, we find here forms that represent
the widest divergence from the hemipterous type known to

MS.

These three suborders can be separated by the following
table :

A. Wingless Hemiptera, parasitic upon man and other Mammals,

with a fleshy, unjointed beak p. 147 II. PARASJTICA.

AA. Hemiptera with or without wings, but with a jointed beak.
B. First pair of wings thickened at the b;ise, with thinner extremi-
ties, which overlap on the back; beak arising from the front
part of the head (Fig. 140, a), p. 123. .. .1. HETEROPTERA.
BB. Wings of the same thickness throughout, and usually sloping
at the sides of the body; beak arising from the hinder part of
the lower side of the head (Fig. 140, b} p.i48.III. HOMOPTERA.

Suborder HETEROPTERA (Het-e-rop'te-ra).

The True Bugs.

People that know but little regarding entomology are apt
to apply the term bug to any kind of insect ; but, strictly
speaking, only the Hemiptera are bugs, and many restrict
the term to members of this suborder. We therefore des-
ignate the Heteroptera as the True Bugs.

The bugs are very common insects. They abound on
grass and on the foliage of other plants. Certain foul-smell-
ing members of this group are well-known pests in gardens,
and upon berries in fields.

In this suborder the first pair of wings are thickened at
the base, while the tips, which overlap each other on the
back of the insect, are thin and transparent ; and the beak
arises from the front part of the head (Fig. 140, a). Some of
the Heteroptera live in water, others on land, while still
others live on the surface of the water or in marshy places.
Each of these modes of life are characteristic of certain fami-
lies. The name Heteroptera is from the Greek heteros, di-
verse, and pteron, a wing. The following synopsis will aid

124 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the student in learning the characters of the families of this
suborder :

SYNOPSIS OF THE HETEROPTERA.

THE SHORT-HORNED BUGS. Bugs with short antennae, which are

nearly or quite concealed beneath the head.
Bitgs tJiat live within water.

The Water-boatmen, Family CORISID^. (p. 129.)
The Back-swimmers, Family NOTONECTID^E. (p. 130.)
The Water scorpions, Family NEPID^E. (p. 130.)
The Giant Water-bugs, Family BELOSTOMID^E. (p. 131.)
The Creeping Water-bugs, Family NAUC.ORID^E. (p. 133.)
Bugs that live near water.

The Toad-shaped Bugs, Family GALGULID^E. (p. 133.)
THE LONG-HORNED BUGS. Bugs with antennae at least as long as
the head, and prominent except in the Phymatidce, where
they are concealed under the sides of the prothorax.
The Semi-aquatic Bugs.

The Shore-bugs, Family SALDID^. (p. 134.)

The Broad-shouldered Water-striders, Family VELIID^E. (p.

I34-)

The Water-striders, Family HYDROBATID^E. (p. 135.)
The Marsh-treaders, Family LIMNOBATID^E. (p. 136.)
The Land-bugs.

The Land-bugs with four-jointed antenna.

The Thread-legged Bugs, Family EMESID^:. (p. 136.)

The Assassin-bugs, Family REDUVIID^E. (p. 137.)

The Damsel-bugs, Family NABID^E. (p. 138.)

The Ambush-bugs, Family PHYMATID.E. (p. 138.)

The Flat bugs, Family ARADID^E. (p. 139.)

The Lace-bugs, Family TINGITID^E. (p. 139.)

The Bed-bug and the Flower-bugs, Family ACANTKIID^E,

(p. 140).

The Leaf-bugs, Family CAPSID^E. (p. 140.)
The Red-bug Family, Family PYRRHOCORID^:. (p. 141.)
The Chinch-bug Family, Family LVGMIDJE. (p. 142.)
The Stilt-bugs, Family BERYTID^E. (p. 143.)
The Squash-bug Family, Family COREIDTE. (p. 143.)
The Land-bugs with five-jointed antennce.

The Stink-bug Family, Family PENTATOMID^;. (p. 144.)
The Burrower-bugs, Family CYDNID.E. (p. 145).
The Negro-bugs, Family CORIMEL/ENID.E. (p. 146.)
The Shield-backed bugs, Family SCUTELLERID^E. (p. 146 j

HEMIPTERA*

125

Classification of the Heteroptera.

(For advanced students.}

In order to use the following table for determining the families of
bugs, the student should become familiar with the names applied to
different parts of the fore-wings of these insects. The thickened
basal portion is composed of two pieces joined together at their
sides : one of these is narrow and is the part next
to the scutellum when the wings are closed (Fig.
141, fl); this is distinguished as the clavus (cla'vus).
The other broader part is the corium (co'ri-um) p IG ~ , Diagram of
(Fig. 141, co). The terminal portion of the wing- wing-cover of a
cover is designated as the membrane (Fig. 141, m.)
In certain families a triangular portion of the terminal part of the
corium is separated as a distinct piece; this is the czmeus (cu'ne-us)
(Fig. 141, cii). In certain other cases, a narrow piece on the costal)
margin of the corium is separated by a suture; this is the embolhim
(em-bo'li-um) (Fig. 141,*?).

FIG. 142.
Nabidte.

FIG. 143.
Acanthiidce.

FIG 144.
Capstdee.

FIG. 145.
PyrrhocoridcE.

FIG. 146.
LygieidiB.

FIG. 147.
Coreidte.

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE

HETEROPTERA.

A. Antennae shorter than the head, and nearly or quite concealed in
a cavity beneath the eyes.
B. Hind-tarsi without claws.

C. Fore-tarsi flattened with a fringe of hairs on the edge, and
without claws ; head overlapping the prothorax. p. 129.

CC. Fore-tarsi of the usual form, and with two claws; head in-
serted in the prothorax. p. 130 .............. NOTONECTID^E.

126 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

BB. Hind-tarsi with two claws.

C. Caudal end of the abdomen furnished with a respiratory tube
composed of a pair of grooved, thread-like organs, p. 130.

NEPIDJE.
CC. Caudal end of abdomen without respiratory tube.

D. Legs flattened, fitted for swimming ; caudal end of the ab-
domen furnished with a pair of strap-like appendages (these
appendages are retractile and are frequently withdrawn from

Sight). p. 131 BELOSTOMIDjE.

DD. Legs fitted for walking; abdomen without strap-like
caudal appendages.

E. Without ocelli, p. 133 NAUCORID^.

EE. Ocelli present, p. 133 GALGULID/E.

AA. Antennae at least as long as the head, usually free, rarely (/ hy-
matid<z) fitting in a groove under the lateral margin of the pro-
notum.
B. Body linear; head as long as the three thoracic segments.

p. 136 LlMNOBATID^E.

BB. Body of various forms, but, when linear, with the head shorter
than the thorax.

C. Last segment of the tarsi more or less split, and with the
claws inserted before the apex.

D. Body usually elongated ; prothorax narrow ; beak four-
jointed; second and third pairs of legs extremely long and

slender, p. 135 HYDROBATID.E.

DD. Body usually stout, oval, and broadest across the protho-
rax; beak three-jointed; legs not extremely long. p. 134.

VELIID.E.

CC. Last segment of the tarsi entire, and with the claws inserted
at the apex.
D. Antennae four-jointed.*

E. Wing-covers resembling network, and very rarely (Ptesma
with any distinction between the corium and the mem-
brane, p. 139 TlNGITIDJE.

EE. Wing-covers of various forms or absent, but not of the
form presented by the Tingitidae. See Fig. 165.
F. Beak three-jointed.

*In certain families there are ininute intermediate segments between the
principal segments of the antennae. For the purposes of this table these
intermediate segments are not counted-

HEMIPTERA. 1 2J

G. Wing-covers when well developed with an embolium
(Fig. 143) ; those forms in which the adult has rudimen-
tary wing-covers have no ocelli, p. 1 40. . . ACANTHIID^E.

GG. Wing-covers when well developed without an em-
bolium ; those forms in which the adult has rudimentary
wing-covers have ocelli.
H. Ocelli wanting.

I. Body linear, p. 136 ................ EMESID^E.

II. Body greatly flattened, p. 139. .... ARADIDA:.

III. Body of ordinary form. p. 137. REDUVIID^.
HH. Ocelli present, though sometimes difficult to see.

I. Beak very long, reaching to or beyond the inter-
mediate coxae, p. 134 ............... SALDID^E.

II. Beak not reaching the intermediate coxae.

J. Front legs with greatly thickened femora.
p. 138 ......................... PHYMATID^;.

JJ. Front femora somewhat thickened, but much
less than half as wide as long. p. 137.

REDUVIID^.
FF. Beak four-jointed.

G. Front legs fitted for grasping prey, the tibiae being
armed with spines and capable of being closed tightly
upon the femora, which are stout. In the forms with
long wings the membrane is usually furnished with
four long veins, bounding three discal cells which are
often open. From these cells diverge veins which
form several marginal cells. (Fig. 142). p. 138.

GG. Front legs fitted for walking.

H. Wing-covers with cuneus. Membrane with one
or two closed cells at its base, otherwise without
veins. (Fig. 144.) p. 140 ............. CAPSID^E.

HH. Wing-covers without cuneus. Membrane with
four or five simple or anastomosing veins arising
from the base ; or with a large number of veins aris-
ing from a cross-vein at the base.

I. Ocelli wanting; membrane with two large cells
at the base, and from these arise about eight
branching veins. (Fig. 145.) p. 140.

PYRRHOCORID^E.

II. Ocelli usually present.

128 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

J. Head with a transverse iivcision in front of the
ocelli, which are always present. (Fig. 175.)
p. 143 ............................. BERYTIDJE.

JJ. Head without transverse incision.

K. Membrane with four or five simple veins
arising from the base of the membrane ; the
two inner ones sometimes joined to a cell near
the base. (Fig. 146.) p. 142 ....... LYG/EIM:.

KK. Membrane with many, usually forked
veins, springing from a transverse basal vein.
(Fig. 147.) p. 143 ................ COREIDjE.

DO. Antennas five-jointed.
E. Scutellum nearly flat, narrowed behind.

F. Tibiae unarmed or furnished with very short spines.
p. 144 ............................... PENT ATOM ID.*:.

FF. Tibiae armed with strong spines in rows. p. 145.

EE. Scutellum very convex, covering nearly the whole ab-
domen.

F. Lateral margins of the scutellum with a furrow in
which the edge of the wing-cover fits when closed.

p. 146 ............................. CORIMEL^NID^:.

FF. Lateral margins of the scutellum without a furrow.
p. 146 ............................... SCUTELLERIDJE.

In the following pages we have discussed the families of the Hete-
roptera in the order in which they are commonly arranged by writers
on these insects. The aquatic families are placed first, the semi-
aquatic next, and the terrestrial last. We do not believe, however,
that this represents well the lines of development of these insects. It
seems probable to us that some of the terrestrial forms, as the Penta-
tomidae, resemble the ancient Heteroptera more closely than do the
aquatic forms ; and that the aquatic forms are really very highly spe-
cialized and represent the summit of one of the lines of development.
Perhaps the Scutelleridae represent the summit of another line.
But as we have been unable to give the matter sufficiently thorough
study to warrant our proposing a new arrangement, it seems best to
follow the old one, merely indicating our belief in the necessity for a
revision of the suborder.

HEMIPTERA.
Family CORISID^: (Co-ris'i-dae).
The Water-boat men.

These are oval, gray and black, mottled bugs, usually
less than half an inch in length, which occur in the streams,
ponds, and lakes of the whole United
States. The characteristic form and
markings of these insects are shown in
Figure 148. These Water-boatmen
have the body flattened above, and
swim upon the ventral surface ; in
these respects they differ from the mem-
bers Of the next family. FlG - *&.Corisa undulata.

The body of these insects, as they swim through the
water, is almost completely enveloped in air, which glitters
like a silver armor. This air is breathed by the insects while
they remain under water, and in good water it is purified
by contact with the fine particles of air scattered through
the water ; so that the insects can breathe their coats of air
again and again indefinitely. This is the case especially
when they are in their favorite attitude, anchored near the
bottom of a pond or aquarium. Here they will remain for
a long time clinging to some object by their fore legs, and
with their hind legs stretched out sidewise ; these they move
frequently as when swimming. The result of this movement
is to cause a current of water to pass over the coat of air,
purifying it.

The body of these insects with the air clinging to it is
much lighter than water; consequently, whenever they loose
their hold upon the object to which they have been clinging,
they rise quickly to the surface, unless they prevent it by
swimming. They occasionally float on the surface of the
water, and can leap into the air from the water and take
flight. They feed upon other insects and lay their eggs
upon water-plants. All of the North American species of
this family belong to the genus Corisa (Cor'i-sa).
10

130 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family NOTONECTID^E (No-to-nec'ti-dae).
The Back-swimmers.

The Back-swimmers have the back shaped like the
bottom of a boat, instead of flat like the true water-boatmen
and they differ from all other aquatic bugs in that they
always swim on their backs.

The favorite attitude of the Back- swimmers is floating on
the surface of the water, back downward, with the hind end
of the body projecting sufficiently to admit of air being
drawn into the space beneath the wings. When in this
position their long oar-like hind legs are stretched outward
and forward, ready for action. When disturbed they dart
away toward the bottom of the pond, carrying a supply of
air beneath their wings. Occasionally these insects will
float on the surface of the water with their backs uppermost;
and, like the water-boatmen, they can leap into the air from
the water and take flight.

The Back-swimmers feed upon insects and other small
animals. In collecting them care must be
taken or they will inflict painful stings with
their sharp and powerful beaks.

The greater number of our common spe-

FIG. 149 Notonecta *

unduiata. c j es o f this family belong to the genus Noto-
necta (No-to-nec'ta) (Fig. 149).

Family NEPID.E (Nep'i-dae).
The Water-scorpions.

The Water-scorpions have two long bristles on the end
of the body, which are grooved on the inner side. By put-
ting these bristles together a long tube is formed, which the
insects can project to the surface of the water, and thus ob-
tain air for breathing, while resting on the bottom of the

HEM1PTERA. 131

pond, stilted on their long legs, or clinging head downward
to the stems of plants.

The most common members of this family belong to the
genus Ranatra (Ran'a-tra) (Fig. 1 50). These are long, slender
bugs with long, slender legs. The
only other representative of the fam-
ily found in the United States is Nepa
apiculata (Ne'pa a-pic-u la'ta). In
this species the body is oval, flat,
and thin, and measures about two
thirds of an inch in length, not includ-
ing the breathing-tube, which is a
little more than one fourth of an inch
long. (See Fig. 214, p. 174.)

The Water-scorpions live among
rubbish or on the stems of water-
plants, in ponds and in the quiet parts
of our streams. They are carnivo-
rous, and have the first pair of legs
fitted for seizing prey. In these legs
the coxa is very long, and the femur
is furnished with a groove into which FlG - IS -~ ;
the tibia and tarsus fit like the blade of a pocket-knife into
the handle.

Owing to the linear form of the body of Ranatra, and to
the dirt with which it is usually covered, it is quite difficult
to detect the presence of this insect among the rubbish
where it is found. Doubtless this resemblance to a dirty
stick aids it greatly in the capture of insects, small fish, and
other unwary animals upon which it preys.

Family BELOSTOMID.E (Bel-os-tom'i-dae).

The Giant Water-bugs.

We have named these insects the Giant Water-bugs as
the family includes the largest Heteroptera now in existence.

132

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Figure 151 represents a common
form, natural size. Like other
water-bugs, these insects fly readily
from pond to pond, and they are
frequently attracted to lights.
This is especially the case where
electric lights are used, into which
they sometimes fly and are killed
by hundreds. On this account
they are known in many parts of
the country as " Electric-light
Bugs ; " and in some sections the
absurd idea prevails that they have
appeared only recently, as i( they
were in some way a product of the

FIG. 151. Belostoma americanum. electric light.

Figure 151 represents Belostoma americanum (Be-los'to-
ma a-mer-i-ca'num). In Belostoma the front femora are
grooved for the reception of the tibiae, as in the preceding
family. Another common representative of the family is
Benacus griseus (Be-na'cus gris'e-us). This resembles Belos-
toma americanum very closely, but can be distinguished from
it by the absence of the femoral groove.

There are other species of the family which are smaller
and belong to the genus Zaitha (Za'i-tha). Figure 152 rep-
resents one of these, natural size.

In the far West there is a common spe-
cies which is an inch and a half long and
about half as broad ; this is Scrphus dilatatus
(Ser'phus dil-a-ta'tus). These insects are
known to California children as " Toe-biters,"
owing to the great interest they are sup-
posed to take in the feet of waders and
swimmers.

The Giant Water-bugs are rapacious
creatures, feeding on other insects and small fish. With

FIG. 152. Zaitha flu-

HEMIPTERA. 133

%

many of them the female fastens her eggs on the top of the
back of the male with a thin layer of waterproof glue which
she secretes for this purpose.

Family NAUCORID^E (Nau-cor'i-dae).
The Creeping Water-bugs.

This is a small family containing water-bugs of a moder-
ate size, in which the front legs are fitted for grasping and
the middle and hind legs for walking. They are flat-bodied,
chiefly oval insects, and without appendages at the hind end
of the body;

The members of this family are predaceous ; and, accord-
ing to Professor Uhler, they are fond of retdy and grassy,
quiet waters, where they creep about like the Predaceous
Diving-beetles, creeping and half swimming around and be-
tween the leaves and sprays of the submerged plants, and
suddenly seizing any unlucky water-boatman or other insect
that happens to be within reach.

Figure 153 represents Pelocoris femorata (Pe-loc'o-ris
fem-o-ra'ta), the only species found in the States on
the Atlantic coast. Several other species are found
in the Western States. These belong to the genus
Atnbrysus (Am-bry'sus), which differs from Pelocoris Peioforts.
in having the front margin of the prothorax very deeply
sinuate.

Family GALGULIDyE (Gal-gu'li-dae).
The Toad-shaped Bugs.

There is sometimes found on the muddy margins of
streams or in marshes, where the soil is moist, a curious bug,
which on account of its short and broad body and projecting
eyes reminds one of a toad ; this is Galgulus oculatus (Gal'gu-

134 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

lus oc-u-la'tus) (Fig. 154), the most common member of this
family. Another species, Mononyx stygicus (Mon'o-
nyx styg'i-cus), closely resembles this one in form,
but can be distinguished by the fact that it has
only a single claw on each front tarsus. A third

FIG i 54 . - member of the family is Pelogonus ainericanns (Pe-

Gal/futus, JO \

r

log'o-nus a-mer-i-ca'nus) ; this is a smaller insect,
with a more oblong body, and of a velvety-black color.
These three are all of the species of this family that have
been found in the United States. They all are predaceous.
Some members of this family are known to make burrows
for themselves, and to live for a part of the time beneath
the ground.

Family SALDID.E (Sal'di-dae).
The Shore-bugs.

These are certain small bugs, of dark colors with white
or yellow markings, and with long antennae, which abound
in the vicinity of streams and lakes, and upon damp soils,
especially of marshes near our coasts. The shape of these
Shore-bugs is shown by Figure 155 ; they belong to
the genus Salda, the only genus representing this
family in the United States, although many species
occur here. FlG IS5 _

Some of the Shore-bugs dig burrows, and live Salda -
for a part of the time beneath the ground. They take
flight quickly when disturbed, but alight after flying a short
distance.

Family VELTID^: (Ve-li'i-dae).
The Broad-shouldered Water-striders.

There are many bugs that run upon the surface of the
water. The greater number of them belong to the next fam-
ily; but there are several genera which represent a family
distinct from the true Water-striders, and which can be easily
distinguished from them by the fact that the body is broad-

HEMIPTERA. 135

est across the prothorax. These Broad-shouldered Water-
striders constitute the family Veliida;. They pass the greater
part of their lives upon the surface of the water, often con-
gregating in schools containing hundreds of individuals ; but
they usually remain near the banks of the stream or pond,
and sometimes they leave the water, mov-
ing on the land with great freedom. Like
the members of the allied families, they are
predaceous. Figure 1 56 represents one of
these insects somewhat enlarged.

FIG. 156. Rhagovelia
collaris.

Family HYDROBATID^E (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae).
The Water-striders.

On the quiet pools of a running stream or the calm
waters of a protected pond may be found swarms of slender
long-legged insects that seem to find the water surface a
pavement well suited for their airy feet. If your approach
is stealthy you may see them resting motionless as if ab-
sorbed in gazing at their own reflections in the mirror below
them ; but disturb them, and so swiftly do they move
that they seem but darting lines as they circle around and
around each other in a mystic dance. If you watch them
closely you may see one leap into the air after some approach-
ing insect.

These are the true Water-striders. In some of them the

body is long and narrow, as
shown in Figure 157; in
others it is oval ; but in all
it is widest back of the pro-
thorax, thus differing from
the form seen in the pre-
ceding family.

In the winter they stow

FIG. icy. Hygrotrechus conformis. .1 i 1^1

themselves away under the
banks or at the bottom of the water, and do not come to

136

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the surface until lured there by the warm weather of spring.
They then lay their eggs, gluing them i'ast to water-plants.

There are members of this family that live on the sur-
face of the ocean, hundreds of miles from land.

Family LIMNOBATID^; (Lim-no-bat'i-dae).

The Marsh-treaders.

Only a single species of this family, the M a rsh-t reader,
Limnobates lineata (Lim-nob'a-tes lin-e-a'ta), is found in the
United States. This is represented greatly
enlarged by Figure 158. Although not an
uncommon species, it is rarely seen on ac-
count of its small size and quiet habits. It
can be recognized by its linear form and
the great length of its head, which is longer
than the thorax. It crawls about on the
surface of the water or mud, or climbs upon
water-plants and sticks projecting from the
water; it seems to prefer stagnant ponds
or marshes. We do not know upon what
it feeds.

FIG. 158. Limnobates

lineata. _,.,_, , _, ,.

Family EMESID^E (E-mes i-dae).
The Thread-legged Bugs.

This family includes a small number of insects in which
the body is very slender and the middle and hind legs are
thread-like ; but the fore
legs are fitted for grasping,
resembling much those of
the Mantes. Our most
common species is the
Long-legged Emesa, Eme-
sa longipes (Em'e-sa lon'-
gi-pes), which is repre-
sented by Figure I 59. This FIG. 159. Emesa longipes.

is found upon trees, or sometimes swinging by its long legs
from the roofs of sheds or barns. It is predaceous.

HEM IP TERA . 137

Family REDUVIID.E (Red-u-vi'i-dae).
The Assassin-bugs.

There are many bugs which destroy their fellows, but
the members of this family are so pre-eminently predaceous
that we call them the Assassin-bugs. Although they usually
live on the blood of insects, in some cases they attack the
higher animals, and occasionally even man suffers from
them. Care should be used in collecting them, as some
are apt to inflict painful stings with their beaks. In this
family the beak is only three-jointed, and when not in use
the tip rests in a groove between the fore legs. The family is
a very large one, containing more than a hundred American
species.

In the Atlantic States one sometimes finds, in basements
and in rooms but little used, a bug which presents a very
curious appearance from having its body and legs completely
covered with dust, so that it looks like a living mass of lint
as it moves around. This is the Masked Bed-bug Hunter,
Opsicoetus personatus (Op-si-cce'tus per-so-na'tus). This
species infests houses for the sake of preying
upon bed-bugs ; it also feeds upon flies and other
insects. Its mask is worn only during youth, and
consists of particles of dust and fibres which ad-
here to a sticky substance with which the body,
legs, and antennae are covered. The adult is
black or very dark brown, and is represented by
Figure 160.

A closely allied species, which is black marked
with red, insinuates itself into beds for a less com-
mendable purpose than that of its ally, for it sucks human
blood at first hand. This insect occurs in the Southern and
Western States ; it is the Big Bed-bug, Conorhinus sangnisu-
gus (Co-nor'hi-nus san-gui-su'gus). Nearly all the members
of this family, however, live upon trees and other plants, and
prey upon insects.

138 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family NABID^E (Nab'i-dae).
The Damsel-bugs.

We have called the members of this family the Damsel-
bugs for want of a better name, " little girl " being the mean-
ing of Coriscus, the scientific name of our most common
genus.

Figure 161 represents a wing-cover of a member of this
family, and will illustrate the venation char-
acteristic of it, although in some species the
wings are usually rudimentary. We have two
IG. 161. common members of this family, one blonde
and the other black.

The Blonde Damsel-bug, Corisctis ferus (Co-r\s r CMS fe'rus),
is about one-third inch in length, and pale yellow, with nu-
merous minute brown dots. This species is widely distrib-
uted, both in this country and in Europe. It
secretes itself in flowers or among the foliage of
various herbaceous plants, and captures small in-
sects, upon which it feeds. There are several
other species that closely resemble this one.

The Black Damsel-bug, Coriscus subcoleoptratus FIG. 162.

/i / \ /T^- ^ \ Cor is cits

(sub-co-le-op-tra tus) (Fig. 162), is very common in subcoieop-
the Northern States. It is of a shining jet-black
color, with the edge of the abdomen and the legs yellowish.
Usually this species has very short, rudimentary wings, but
a form with long wings is sometimes found.

Family PHYMATID^E (Phy-mat'i-dae).
The A mbush-bugs.

The most common member of this family is Phymata
wolffii (Phy-ma'ta wolf'i-i) (Fig. 163). It is a greenish
insect, with a black band across the broadly expanded
abdomen. It conceals itself in flowers, and captures
FIG. i6 3 . the insects which come to sip nectar. It is espe-
woiffii" cially abundant among the flowers of the golden-rod.

H EMITTER A.

139

It has wonderfully strong, grasping front legs, and can over-
come insects much larger than itself.

Family ARADID^E (A-rad'i-dae).
The Flat-bugs.

These are the flattest of all bugs, the body appearing as
if it had been stepped upon. They live in the cracks
or under the bark of decaying trees. The form of
the body is especially adapted for gliding about in
these cramped situations. They are usually of a
dull -brown color, but are sometimes varied with
reddish or pale markings. Figure 164 represents
.a common species.

Family TINGITID^E (Tin-git'i-dae).
The Lace-bugs.

Dainty as fairy brides are these tiny, lace-draped insects.
One glance at the fine white meshes that cover the wings
and spined thorax is sufficient to distinguish them from
all other insects, for these are the only ones that are clothed
from head to foot in fine white Brussels net. They live upon

o

J,

FlG. 164.

A radus
acutus.

FIG. 165. Corythuca arcu-
ata. (From the Author's
Report for 1879.)

FIG. 166. Eggs and
nymph of Corythuca
arcuata. (From the
Author's Report for
1879-)

the juices of plants, and in the case of the Hawthorn Tingis
(Fig. c i65) sometimes prove too numerous for the health of
their plant host.

140 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

They are very small insects, rarely measuring more than
one eighth of an inch in length. Their eggs are fastened to
leaves, and covered by a brown, sticky substance ; they
appear more like fungi than like the eggs of other insects
(Fig. 166).

Family ACANTHIID^E (Ac-an-thi'i-dse).

The Bed-bug and tJie Flower-bugs.

The Bed-bug, AcantJiia lectularia (A-can'thi-a lec-tu-la'-
ri-a), is a well-known pest over the greater part
of the world. It is reddish brown in color,
and measures when full-grown from one-sixth
to one-fifth inch in length. The body is ovate

FIG. \6T.~Acan~ . , .

\\\ outline and is very flat (Fig. 107). It is

wingless, or has very short and rudimentary wing-covers.

The Bed-bug is a nocturnal insect, hiding by day in the
cracks of furniture and beneath various objects. Bed-bugs
are easily destroyed by wetting the cracks in which they
hide with corrosive sublimate dissolved in alcohol. This is
sold by druggists under the name of bed-bug poison. Py-
rethrum powder blown into the cracks will destroy these
insects, and, unlike corrosive sublimate, is not poisonous to
man. A closely allied species, A. Jiirundinis (hir-un-di'nis)
occurs in nests of the barn-swallow.

There are certain small bugs that are closely allied to the
Bed-bug, but which have wing-covers that are almost always
fully developed. These are the Flower-bugs.
They are found in a great variety of situations, .^f^f""}
often upon trees and flowers, sometimes under
bark or rubbish. They are predaceous. Figure
168 represents a wing-cover of one of these insects.

Family CAPSID/E (Cap'si-dae).

The Leaf -bugs.

This is the largest family of the Heteroptera; the
members of it live chiefly upon the leaves of plants,

HEM1PTERA. 141

from which they derive their nourishment, but
some of them are predaceous. The most avail-
able character for distinguishing these insects is
the structure of the wing-covers ; at the base of FlG- 169>
the membrane there are one or two cells, otherwise the
membrane is without veins (Fig. 169).

More than two hundred species belonging to this fam-
ily are known to occur in the United States.
Figure 170 represents the Four-lined Leaf-bug.
Poecilocapsus lincatus (Pce-cil-o-cap'sus lin-e-a'tus),
a yellow bug, with its prothorax and wing-
-pcedi- covers marked with black, which is abundant
tus. sus linea ' in early summer on the leaves of currant-
bushes and of sage.

Family PYRRHOCORID^E (Pyr-rho-cor'i-dae).

Tlie Red-bug Family.

The members of this family are rather stout and heavily
formed bugs, and are generally black or brown,
marked with red. Some members of the next
family resemble these in markings, but the two
families can be distinguished by the venation of
the membrane of the wing-covers. In this family there are
two large cells at the base of the membrane, and from these
arise branching veins (Fig. 171).

The most important species of this family is the Red-bug,
or Cotton-stainer, Dysdercus suturellus (Dys-der'cus su-tu-
rel'lus) (Fig. 172). The adult is of a reddish color ; the wing-
covers are pale brown, with pale-yellow stripes. The young
are bright red, with black legs. They do much
damage by piercing the stems and bolls of the
cotton-plant and sucking the juices, but do much
more damage by staining the cotton in the open-
ing bolls. They also puncture the rind of oranges
in Florida, so that decay soon sets in, and the
FIG. 172. z^j-fruit drops. These insects can be trapped by

dercus sutu-. .... . A ,

laying chips of sugar-cane around the cotton-

142 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

fields. In orange-groves heaps of cotton-seed as well as
pieces of sugar-cane will be found useful ; the insects will
collect in these places and can be scalded to death.

Family LYG^ID^E (Ly-gae'i-dae).
The Chinch-bug Family.

This, too, is a large family, about one hundred and
fifty species being known to occur in the
United States. Here the membrane of the
wing-covers is furnished with four or five simple
veins, which arise from the base of the mem-
brane; sometimes the two inner veins are joined to a cell
near the base (Fig. 173).

This family contains the Chinch-bug, Blissus leucopterus
(Blis'sus leu-cop'te-rus), the most destructive member of the
Heteroptera occurring in the United States.
Although quite widely distributed, its injuries
have attracted most attention in the Missis-
sippi Valley, where it has destroyed many
million dollars' worth of grain. It is a small Fir _
bug, measuring less than one sixth of an inch
in length. In Figure 174 it is represented slightly enlarged
and greatly enlarged. It is blackish in color, with snowy-
white wing -covers, each marked with a dark spot and
Y-shaped line, as shown in the figure. The species is di-
morphic, there being a short-winged form.

There are two generations of the Chinch-bug each year ;
they winter as full-grown insects and hide under rubbish.
In the early spring they come forth and lay their eggs in
fields of grain upon the roots or stems beneath the ground.
The eggs hatch in about two weeks. The nymphs are red,
and feed at first upon roots ; afterwards they attack the
stalks of the plants they infest. In about fifty days they
get their growth. About this time the whole brood starts
out to find new pastures, and they all march on foot in one
direction, like an army. Although they are tiny insects they

HEMIPTERA.

143

number millions, and so attract much attention. As soon as
they find a new field of grain they lay their eggs there for
another brood.

No satisfactory means of combating this insect was
known until recently. But it has now been ascertained that
it is destroyed by a contagious disease which can be spread
artificially. Diseased bugs are sent to places where the dis.
ease does not exist ; and thus the contagion is spread.
Extensive experiments are being carried on in Kansas at the
time of this writing, and the results so far seem very encour-
aging.

Family BERYTID^: (Be-ryt'i-dae).

The Stilt-bugs.

This family includes a small number of land bugs, in which
the body, legs, and antennae are very slender, resembling

somewhat the thread-legged bugs
(Emesidae).

The stilt bugs have the tip of
the femora, the tip of the first joint
of the antennae, and the last joint
of the antennae somewhat enlarged
(Fig. 175). Only two species have
been found in the United States.
These are Ncides muticiis (Ne'i-des
mu'ti-cus), which has a prominent
spine on the vertex of the head ;
and Jalysus spinosns (Jal'y-sus S pj.
no'sus), which, although spined in
other places, lacks the spine on the vertex.

These are sluggish insects, found in the undergrowth of
woods and in meadows and pastures.

Family COREID^E (Co-re'i-dae).

The SquasJi-bug Family.

This family is also a very extensive one, including many
species. The best character foi distinguishing the members

FIG. 175. Jalysus spinosus.

M4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

of it is the nature of the venation of the membrane of the
wing-covers. This part is furnished with many
veins, most of which spring from a cross-vein near
F.G. x 7 6. its base (Fig. 176).

The Squash-bug, Anasa tristis (An'a-sa tris'-
tis), is a good example of this great family. These when full-
grown are brownish-black bugs, with some yellow spots
along the edges of the abdomen (Fig. 177),
and are dirty yellow on the under side. This
bug winters in the adult state, and takes the
first opportunity in the spring to lay its eggs
on the earliest sprouts of squash and pumpkin
vines. As soon as they hatch, the young bugs
attack the vines and are apt to destroy them
entirely. The remedy is to protect the young tristis.
plants by frames covered with netting.

Family PENTATOMlDyE (Pen-ta-tom'i-dae).
The Stink-bug Family.

This is a family the taste and odor of which most of us
know to our sorrow. We learn the fla/or in one experience,
and conclude that once is enough for a lifetime. To those
who live in cities it may always remain a mystery why one
berry looking just like another should taste and smell so
differently ; but all barefooted boys and sun-bonneted girls
from the country who have picked the wild strawberries on
the hillsides or scratched their hands and faces in raspberry
patches know well the angular green or brown bugs that
leave a loathsome trail behind them ; and they will tell you,
too, that the bugs themselves are worse than their trail, for
it is a lucky youngster that has not taken one of these insects
into his mouth by mistake with a handful of berries.

It should not be concluded, however, that only members
of this family possess this disagreeable odor ; for most of the
Heteroptera protect themselves by rendering their bodies
unpalatable in this way. Doubtless birds soon learn this

HEMIPTERA. 145

fact and leave such bugs alone. But it is to members of
this family that the expressive name given above is com-
monly applied.

This nauseous odor is caused by a fluid which is excreted
through two openings, one on each side of the lower side of
the body near the middle coxae.

In this family the antennae are five-jointed ; the scu-
tellum, although large, is less than half as long as the abdo.
men ; and the front legs are not fitted for digging

(Fig. 178).

Some species of this family feed upon other
insects, and so are very helpful to the farmer, one
species especially being a gallant fighter against
the potato-beetle. Other species feed entirely
upon vegetables, while others live upon both Fl | tin ^~ A
vegetable and animal matter.

The Harlequin Cabbage-bug or Calico-back, Murgantia
histronica (Mur-gan'ti-a his-tron'i-ca), is very destructive to
cabbages, radishes, and turnips in the Southern States and
on the Pacific coast. It is black with bands, stripes, and
margins of red or orange or yellow. The full-grown bugs
live through the winter, and in the early spring each female
lays on the under surface of the young leaves about twelve
eggs in two parallel rows. The young bugs are pale green,
with black spots. They mature in a few days, so there are
many generations in one season. It is difficult to find a
remedy for this pest, but much can be done by placing
cabbage and turnip leaves on the ground in early spring,
and thus trapping them when they first come out of their
winter quarters.

Family CYDNID^E (Cyd'ni-dae).
The Burrower-bugs.

These are oval, rounded, or elliptical bugs, with five-
jointed antennae; with the scutellum large, but less than
11

146

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

in

all

half as long as the abdomen ; and with the front legs more
or less flattened, fitted for digging (Fig. 179).

The species are generally black or very dark
brown. They are found burrowing in sandy places,
r or on the surface of the ground beneath sticks and

FIG. 179.

cyrtome- stones, or at the roots of grass and other herbage.

nus mi- 2> o

rabuis. The family is not a large one. The members of it
probably feed upon plants ; but it is desirable that further
observation be made upon the habits of this family.

Family CORIMEUENID^E (Cor-i-me-laen'i-dae).
The Negro-bugs.

These bugs are mostly black, and are beetle-like
appearance ; some have a bluish or greenish tinge, and
are very convex. The scutellum is very convex, and, as in
the following family, covers nearly the whole of the abdo-
men. But in this family there is at the base of
the scutellum on each side a short furrow into
which the edge of the wing-cover fits when at
rest. All of our species belong to the genus
Corimel&na (Cor-i-me-lae'na).

These insects infest various plants, and often
injure raspberries and other fruit by imparting a disagreeable
odor to them. Fig. 180 represents one of these bugs, some-
what enlarged.

Family SCUTELLERID.E (Scu-tel-ler'i-dae).
The Shield-backed Bugs.

The members of this family resemble the
negro-bugs in the shape and size of the
scutellum, which covers nearly the whole of
the abdomen ; but the sides of the scutellum
are not furnished with a groove for receiving
the edge of the wing-covers. Fig. 181 repre-
sents one of these insects enlarged. They
feed upon plants.

FIG. \%o.Cori-
meleena iitra.

FIG. 181. Euryga*
ter alttrnaius.

HEMIPTERA.

Suborder PARASITA (Par-a-si'ta).

147

The Parasita includes certain parasites of man and other
mammals, commonly known as lice. They are wingless,
and differ from other Hemiptera in having the beak fleshy
and not jointed. This suborder is represented in the United
States by only one family, the Pediculidce.

Family PEDICULID.E (Ped-i-cu'li-dae).
The Lice.

This family comprises the true lice, which differ from the
bird-lice of the order Mallophaga in having sucking mouth-
parts. The true lice live on the skin of mammals, and suck
their blood.

There are three species that infest man : one living on
the head, among the hair ; and the other two on the body.
Several species infest our domestic animals. The more

FIG. ^.Hcematopinus
asini. (From Law.)

FlG. 183. H. eurysterntts.
(From Law.)

common of these are the louse of the horse (Fig. 182), and
the louse of the cow (Fig. 183).

Various substances are used for destroying lice on domes-
tic animals : among them are a strong infusion of tobacco,

148 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

an ointment made of one part sulphur and four parts lard,
Scotch snuff, powdered wood ashes, and kerosene emulsion.
The remedy should be applied thoroughly, and repeated
several times at intervals of three or four days, in order to
destroy the young which may hatch after the first application.
The stable and the places where the cattle are in the habit
of rubbing should also be whitewashed or sprayed with
kerosene, or strong kerosene emulsion.

Suborder HOMOPTERA (Ho-mop'te-ra).
Cicadas, Leaf-hoppers, Aphids, Scale-bugs and others.

The Homoptera includes insects of widely diversified
form, but which agree, however, in having the wings when
present of the same thickness throughout, and usually slop-
ing roof-like at the sides of the body when at rest, and in
having the beak arise from the hinder part of the lower side
of the head (Fig. 140, b}. The name is from two Greek
words: homos, same; and pteron, a wing.

This suborder includes nine families, which are designated
as follows :

The Cicadas, Family ClCADlD^E (p. 149).

The Lantern-fly Family, Family FULGORID^: (p. 151).

The Spittle Insects, Family CERCOPID^; (p. 152).

The Leaf-hoppers, Family jASSIDyE (p. 153).

The Tree-hoppers, Family MEMBRACID^; (p. 154).

The Jumping Plant-lice, Family PSYLLID^: (p. 155).

The Plant-lice, Family APHIDID^: (p. 156).

The Aleyrodes, Family ALEYRODID.E (p. 163).

The Scale-bugs, Family COCCID^E (p. 164).

CLASSIFICATION OF THE HOMOPTERA.
(For advanced students.']

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE HOMOPTERA.

A. Beak evidently arising from the head ; tarsi three-jointed ; anten-
nae minute, bristle-like.

HEM IP TERA . 1 49

B. With three ocelli, and the males with musical organs. Usually
large insects, with all the wings entirely membranous, p. 149.

ClCADID^E.

BB. Ocelli only two in number or wanting ; males without musi-
cal organs.
C. Antennae inserted on the sides of the cheeks beneath the

eyes. p. 151 FULGORID/G.

CC. Antennae inserted in front of and between the eyes.
D. Prothorax not prolonged above the abdomen.

E. Hind tibiae armed with one or two stout teeth, and the

tip crowned with short stout spines p. 152.. . CERCOPID^:.

EE. Hind tibiae having a row of spines below p. 1 53. JASSID^E.

DD. Prothorax prolonged into a horn or point above the

abdomen, p. 154 MEMBRACID.E.

AA. Beak apparently arising from between the front legs, or absent;
tarsi one or two jointed ; antennae usually prominent and thread-
like, sometimes wanting.

B. Tarsi usually two-jointed; wings when present four in number.
C. Wings transparent.

D. Hind legs fitted for leaping; antennae nine or ten jointed.

p. 155 PSYLLID^E.

D. Legs long and slender, not fitted for leaping; antennae

three to seven jointed, p. 1 56 APHIDID^E.

CC. Wings opaque, whitish ; wings and body covered with a

whitish powder, p. 163 ALEYRODID.E.

BB. Tarsi one-jointed ; adult male without any beak, and with
only two wings-; female wingless, with the body either scale-
like or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. The
waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or
plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale beneath which the
insect lives, p. 164.. COCCID.E.

Family ClCADlD^ (Ci-cad'i-dae).
The Cicadas (Ci-ca'das).

The large size and well-known songs of the more common
species of this family render them familiar objects. It is only
necessary to refer to the Periodical Cicada (or the seventeen-
year locust, as it has been improperly termed) and to the

150 THE STUDY OF IN SECTS.

Dog-day Harvest-fly (Fig. 184) to give an idea of the more

striking characters of this family. We
have several species much smaller than
either of these ; but their characteristic
form and the presence of three ocelli
are sufficient to distinguish them from
the members of the other families.

The Periodical Cicada, Cicada sep-
tendecim (Ci-ca'da sep-ten'de-cim), is
very generally known in this country,
owing to the great numbers in which
it appears, at long intervals of time.
This periodical appearance is due to
the long time required for the nymphs

F,G. ^.-Cicada tilncen. ^ Q obta 'j n their growt h_ e ither SCVCn-

teen or thirteen years and to the fact that all the members
of one generation appear in the adult state at about the same
time. The adult female lays her eggs in slits which she
makes in the twigs of trees. Small fruit is sometimes in-
jured in this way. The eggs hatch in about six weeks.
The young nymphs finding no attraction in a world of sun-
shine and of flowers, drop to the ground and bury them-
selves in the earth, thus commencing a voluntary seclusion
which lasts for years. They live by sucking the juices from
the roots of trees. In May of the seventeenth year after
their retirement to their earthy cloisters they crawl up to
the surface of the ground, like renegade monks ; and, leav
ing their nymph-skins clinging to the tree-trunks, like cast-
off garments of penance, they come forth, broad-headed,
broad-bodied, clear-winged creatures, well fitted to get all
the experience possible out of a world whose frivolities they
have so long scorned. But, like other creatures, they find a
life of dissipation very exhausting, and after a few weeks
they sing their last song, lay their eggs, and pass away.

In the South these insects live only thirteen years under

HEMIPTERA. 15 l

ground, but in the North it requires seventeen years for a
nymph to reach maturity.

More than twenty distinct broods of this species have
been traced out. In many localities several broods coexist;
this explains the fact that in such places these insects ap-
pear several times during a single period of seventeen years.

There is a common species of Cicada known as the Dog- y
day Harvest-fly or Lyreman, Cicada tibicen (Ci-ca'da ti-bi'cen),
which requires only two years for its development, and as
there are two broods of this species the adults appear every
year. This Cicada (Fig. 184) is black and green in color,
and more or less powdered beneath. And its song is the
high, sharp trill that comes to us, midsummer noons, from
the depths of trees where the singer is hidden amid the
foliage, all unconscious that its shrill note has for centuries
been a theme for poets.

Family FULGORID/E (Ful-gor'i-dae).
The Lantern-fly Family.

This family is remarkable for certain exotic forms which
it contains. Chief among these is the great Lantern-fly of
Brazil, which is figured in many popular works on insects.
Scarcely less strange are the Candle-flies of China and the
East Indies. The popular names of these fnsects refer to
the fact that they are phosphorescent, but we know of no
native species that possesses this peculiarity. There does
not seem to be any typical form of the body characteristic
of this family. The different genera differ so greatly, that
on superficial examination they appear to have very little in
common. Some even resemble butterflies and moths, while
others might easily be mistaken for neuropterous genera.

The most useful character for recognizing these insects is
the form and position of the antennae. These are bristle-
shaped, and inserted in a button-shaped base on the side of

IS 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the cheek beneath the eyes. Although the Fulgoridae are
vegetable feeders, none of our species have attracted the at-
tention of agriculturists. There are, however, certain exotic
species which do great injury to crops.

The two accompanying figures will serve to show the
wonderful variations in form of these insects; many other
types exist. Figure 185 represents a common species of Sco-
lops (Sco'lops), which occurs in grassy places. In this genus
the head is greatly prolonged, as with the exotic Candle-flies.

FIG. 185. Scolops. FIG. 186. Onnenis septen-

trionnlis.

Figure 186 represents Ormenis septenttionalis (Or'me-nis sep-
ten-tri-o-na'lis), a beautiful pale-green species powdered with
white, which feeds on wild grape-vines, drawing nourishment
from the tender shoots and mid-ribs of the leaves during its
young stages.

Family CERCOPID/E (Cer-cop'i-dse).
77/(? Spittle Insects or Frog-hoppers.

During the summer months one often finds upon various
shrubs and herbs masses of white froth. In the midst of
each of these masses there lives a young insect, a member of
this family. In some cases as many as four or five insects
inhabit the same mass of foam. The froth is supposed to
consist of sap, which the insect has pumped from the plant,
by means of its beak, and passed through its alimentary
canal. It is asserted that these insects undergo all their
transformations within this mass ; that when one is about to
molt for the last time, a clear space is formed about its
body ; the superficial part of the foam dries, so as to form a
vaulted roof to a closed chamber, within which the change

HEMIPTERA. 1 53

of the skin is made. The adult insects wander about on
herbage and trees. They have the power of leaping well.
The name frog-hoppers has doubtless grown out of the fact
that formerly the froth was called " frog-spittle," and was
supposed to have been voided by tree-frogs from their
mouths. The name is not, however, inappropriate, for the
broad and depressed form of our more common species is
something like that of a frog.

In this family the antennae are inserted in front of and
between the eyes ; the prothorax is not prolonged back of the
abdomen (as in the Membracidae) ; and the tibiae
are armed with one or two stout teeth, and the
tip crowned with short, stout spines, as shown in
Figure 187. This figure represents the most com-

, TT 1 r* FlG -

mon spittle insect of the hastern United btates, ro

/ / . rangularis.

Aphrophora quadrangutarts (A-pnropn o-ra quad-
ran-gu-la'ris), and one of its tibiae greatly enlarged.

Family JASSID^E (Jas'si-dae).

The Leaf -hoppers.

The most abundant members of the Homoptera, except
perhaps the Aphids, are the leaf-hoppers. Large numbers
of them can be easily collected by sweeping grass, herbage,
or the foliage of shrubs.

The leaf-hoppers are more slender than the spittle insects,
and are also distinguished by the form of the
hind tibiae, which are nearly or quite as long as
the abdomen, curved, and armed with a row of
spines on each margin (Fig. 188).
FIG. iw.-proco- Among the leaf-hoppers that have attracted

nia undata. . , , . .

attention on account ot their injuries to vegeta-
tion are the following : The destructive Leaf-hopper, Cicadula
exitiosa (Ci-cad'u-la ex-it-i-o'sa), which is represented greatly
enlarged by Figure 189, sometimes infests winter wheat
to a serious extent in the Southern States. The Grape-

154

THE STODY OF INSECTS.

-

vine Leaf-hopper, Erythroneura vitis (E-ryth-ro-
neu'ra vi'tis), is a well-known pest that infests the
leaves of the grape. It is about one-eighth inch
in length, crossed by two blood-red bands, and a
third dusky one at the apex. It is often iinprop.
erly called the " Thrip" by grape-growers. But
the term Thrip or better Thrips should be restricted
to members of the order Physopoda. The Rose
Leaf-hopper, Enipoa roses (Em'po-a ro'sae), is also a
well-known pest, as it often swarms on the leaves
Reponf r o? of foses, doing great damage. Its presence is
l879 ' ) usually indicated by numerous white cast skins
adhering to the lower side of the leaves.

The leaf-hoppers can be destroyed by a strong solution
of soap, or with kerosene emulsion. In vineyards, where the
use of these substances would injure the fruit, they can be
trapped by two persons carrying a screen covered with
tarred paper on one side of a row of vines, while a third per-
son walking on the other side of the row frightens them
from the vines on to the screen. Dead leaves and other
rubbish, among which these insects hibernate, should be
burned during the winter.

Family MEMBRACID.E (Mem-brac'i-dae).

The Tree-hoppers.

Nature must have been in a joking mood when tree-
hoppers were developed, for these little creatures are most

FIG. 190. Tree-hoppers.

HEMIPTERA.

155

ig2.

comically grotesque in appearance. In general outline
they resemble beech-nuts, except that many have humps on
their backs. The prothorax is prolonged back-
ward like a roof over the body, often quite covering
it. If the young entomologist wishes to laugh, let
him look at the faces of tree-hoppers through a
lens (Fig. 190). Their eyes always have a keen, F c^' bu .
droll look, and the line that separates the head b
from the prothorax gives them the appearance of wearing
glasses. In some cases the prothorax is elevated
above the head, so that it looks like a peaked
nightcap ; in others it is shaped like a Tam-o'-
"' Shanter ; and sometimes it has horns, one on each
side, which have given one species the name of
the Buffalo Tree-hopper.

Many species of this family live upon bushes or small
trees, and are all good leapers ; hence the com-
mon name, Tree-hoppers. Some species ex-
crete honey-dew, and are attended by ants.
All feed upon plants, but they seldom appear FlG . , 94 ._7>/-
in sufficient numbers to do much damage.

The accompanying figures will show some of the more
common forms seen in this strange family (Figs. 191-194).

Family PSYLLID^: (Psyl'li-dae).

The Jumping Plant-lice.

The jumping plant-lice are comparatively small insects ;
our more common species measuring only from one-eighth
to one-sixth inch in length, and it is rare that we find any
twice that size. When examined with a lens
they appear like tiny Cicadas (Fig. 195).
T Their hind legs are formed for jumping ; their
1 antennae are nine or ten jointed, and their
tarsi are only two-jointed. Figure 197 repre-
sents the wings of a common species.

The Psyllidae subsist entirely upon the

5 6

THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

juices of plants, and some of them cause serious injuries.
Many species form galls ; one of the larger of these infest
the Celtis or Hackberry.

FIG. 196. The Pea-rtree Psylla,
greatly enlarged.

FIG. 197. Venation of Wings: .r, stigma;
c, clavus ; c. s., elaval suture.

The most destructive member of this family in the
United States is the Pear-tree Psylla, Psylla pyricola (Psyl'la
py-ric'o-la). This is a minute species, measuring only one-
tenth inch in length to the tip of the folded wings (Fig.
196). But it occurs in such large numbers that it has
destroyed extensive pear orchards, by sucking the sap from
the smaller ^mbs and twigs. It can be destroyed by
spraying the infested trees with kerosene emulsion imme
diately after the leaves have expanded in the spring.

Family APHIDID^: (A-phid'i-dae).

The Plant-lice or Aphids (Aph'ids].

The plant-lice are well-known insects; they infest nearly
all kinds of vegetation in all parts of the country. Our
most common examples are minute,
soft-bodied, green insects, with long
legs and antennae, which appear on
various plants in the house and in the
field. Among our co'.nmon species are
both winged and wingless forms (Fig. FIG. 198. A Group of
198). There are a great number of species, nearly all of

HEMIPTERA. 157

which are of small size. In our largest species the body
measures only about one-fourth inch in length, and usually
these insects are very much smaller.

The body is usually more or less pear-shaped. The
winged forms have two pairs of delicate, transparent wings.
These are furnished with a few simple veins, but the vena-
tion is more extended than in either of the two following
families. The first pair of wings is larger than the other,
and the two wings of each side are usually connected by a
compound hooklet. The beak is three-jointed, and varies
greatly in length ; sometimes it is longer than the body.
The compound eyes are prominent, and ocelli are also
usually present. The antennae are from three to seven
jointed. On the back of the sixth abdominal segment there
is, in many species, a pair of tubes, through which a wax-
like material is excreted. In some genera these organs are
merely perforated tubercles, while in still other genera they

are wanting.

The substance known as honey-dew is excreted from
the posterior end of the alimentary canal. It is sometimes
produced in such quantities that it forms a glistening coat-
ing on the leaves of the branches below the plant-lice,
and stone walks beneath shade-trees are often densely
spotted with it. This honey-dew is fed upon by bees, wasps,
and ants. The bees and wasps take the food where they
find it, paying little if any attention to its source ; but the
ants recognize in the plant-lice useful auxiliaries, and often
care for them as men care for their herds. This curious re-
lationship will be discussed farther under the head of Ants.

It is easy to see what benefit ants derive from this asso-
ciation with plant-lice, and how they should learn that it is
worth while for them to care for their herds of honey pro-
ducing cattle. Little has been done, however, to point out
the great benefit that accrues to the plant-lice from this re-
lationship. It seems fair to assume that the plant-lice are
greatly benefited, else why has the highly specialized appa-

158 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

ratus for producing the honey-dew been developed ? Writers
long ago showed that ants protect plant-lice by driving away
from them lady-bugs and other enemies. Recently, how-
ever, Professor Forbes has demonstrated that, in certain
^ases at least, a more important service is rendered. In his
studies of the Corn Plant-louse, ApJtis inaidis (A'phis
mai'dis), he found that this species winters in the wingless,
agamic form in the earth of previously infested corn-fields,
and that in the spring the plant-lice are strictly dependent
upon a species of ant, Lasins "alicmis (Las'i-us al-i-e'nus),
which mines along the principal roots of the corn, collects
the plant-lice, and conveys them into these burrows, and
there watches and protects them. Without the aid of these
ants, the plant-lice were unable to reach the roots of the corn.

In addition to honey dew, many Aphids excrete a white
substance. This may be in the form of powder, scattered
over the surface of the body, or it may be in large floccu-
lent or downy masses ; every gradation between these forms
exists.

The plant-lice are remarkable for their peculiar mode of
development. The various species differ greatly in the de-
tails of their transformation, but the following generaliza-
tions can be made.

There are several distinct forms in each species, each
form playing a peculiar part in the history of the species..
If a colony of plant-lice be examined during the summer
months it will be found, usually, to consist very largely of
wingless individuals ; these are females, which reproduce
without the intervention of males. This is the wingless
agamic form. In many cases this form gives birth to living
young, instead of laying eggs ; and the reproduction of
this form is so rapid, that it would be disastrous to the
species, by the destruction of the infested plants and the
consequent starving of the insects, if another form of the
species did not arise. But from time to time young are
produced which become winged, and thus the spread of

HEM IP TERA . I 59

the species is provided for. This winged form also con-
sists entirely of females, and is known as the ^vinged agamic
form. They produce in turn the wingless agamic form, a
single, winged individual, which has flown to a new plant,
starting a new colony. Generally on the setting in of cold
weather, or in some cases on the failure of nourishment,
the weather being still warm, there is produced a generation
including individuals of both sexes. These are known as

o

the sexual forms. The males may be either winged or
wingless, but these true females are always wingless. The
sexual forms pair, and the female produces one or more
eggb. It is in this state that the species usually pass
the winter, and consequently these eggs produced by the
sexual form are often called the winter eggs, to distinguish
them from eggs produced by the agamic forms of certain
species, and which are incorrectly termed pseudova (pseu-
do'va). From the winter egg there hatches, usually in the
spring-, an agamic female, which, as she is the stock from
which the summer generations spring, is often called the
stem-mother. The peculiar reproduction of the agamic
forms is often termed reproduction by budding.

Plant-lice are often very destructive to vegetation. The
ordinary methods of combating them are either by the use
of a strong solution of soap or with kerosene emulsion.

Plant-lice vary greatly in their habits. Certain species
live in the ground on the roots of plants. The Lettuce
Earth-louse, RJiizobius lactucce (Rhi-zo'bi-us lac-tu'cae), is a
good illustration. This occurs on the roots of lettuce, often in
great numbers. Other species are found on the roots of grasses
or herbaceous plants and usually accompanied by ants.

On the other hand, many species, in fact the majority of
Aphids, pass their lives on the foliage of plants, infesting
especially the tenderer leaves. Familiar examples are the
Cabbage Aphis, Aphis brassicce (A'phis bras'si-cae), the Apple-
tree Aphis, Aphis mail, the Cherry tree Aphis, Mysus cerasi
(My'sus cer'a-si), and the Peach-tree Aphis, Mysus persicce

I6O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

(My'sus per'si-cae). The last three are almost invariably
attended by ants.

The Plant-lice of the genus Lachnus (Lach'nus) are
usually found on the limbs of trees and shrubs. To this

genus belong our largest Aphids, some of

them measuring one-fourth inch in length.

Figure 199 represents one of these enlarged.
FIG. .-Lachnus. Some sp ecies of plant-lice live both on

the roots and on the leaves of plants. One
of these is the Grape Phylloxera, Phylloxera vastatrix (Phyl-
lox-e'ra vas-ta'trix), which is the most important enemy of
the grape. The presence of this insect is manifested by the
vines in two ways: first, in the case of certain species of
grapes, there appear upon the lower surface of the leaves
fleshy swellings, which are more or less wrinkled and hairy ;
these are hollow galls, opening upon the upper surface of
the leaf, and containing a wingless agamic plant-louse and
her eggs; second, when the fibrous roots of a sickly vine are
examined, we find, if the disease is due to this insect, that
the minute fibres have become swollen and knotty; or, if
the disease is far advanced, they may be entirely decayed.
Upon these root-swellings we also find an agamic, wingless,
egg -laying plant - louse, the author of the mischief. The
insects found upon the roots differ slightly from those found
within the galls, but their specific identity is now generally
accepted.

Owing to the great injury which this species has done to
the vineyards of France, hundreds of memoirs have been
published regarding it. But as yet no satisfactory means of
destroying it has been discovered. The difficulty lies in the
fact that the insecticide must be one that can penetrate the
ground to the depth of three or four feet, reaching all the
fibrous roots infested by the insect. It must be a substance
that can be cheaply applied on a large scale, and it must
also be something that will kill the insect without injury to

HEMIPTERA. r6l

the vine. Carbon bisulphide has been used to son^e extent
for this purpose.

Where the vineyards are so situated that they can be
submerged for a period of at least forty days during the
winter, the insect can be drowned. But this method is
obviously of limited application.

It is found that vines growing in very sandy soil resist
the attacks of the Grape Phylloxera. This is supposed to be
due to the difficulty experienced by the insect in finding
passage through sirch soil.

Another well-known example of the plant-lice that make
galls is Coloplia ulinicola (Col'o-pha ul-mic'o-la), which makes
the Cockscomb Elm-gall. This gall is shaped more or less
like a cock's comb, and is very common on the upper side of
the leaves of the elm.

There is a group of species of plant-lice known as the
Woolly Aphids, on account of a white more or less downy
or waxy substance with which the bodies of these insects are
covered. Large numbers of one of these species are often
found crowded together on the under side of the branches of
alder. This species is known as the Alder-blight, Schizoneura
tessellata (Schiz-o-neu'ra tes-sel-la'ta). In addition to the
white excretion with which the body is covered this insect
excretes large quantities of honey-dew. The result is that
the branches infested by this insect, and those beneath the
clusters of Aphids, become blackened with fungi that grow
upon this secretion. There is also a curious fungus which
grows in large spongy masses immediately beneath the clus-
ters of plant-lice ; this is known to botanists as Scorias
spongiosum. It is evidently fed by the honey-dew that falls
upon it.

The Beech-tree Blight, Schizoneura ijnbricator (im-bri-
ca'tor), infests both the twigs and leaves of beech. Like
the preceding species it occurs in clusters of individuals,
each of which is clothed with a conspicuous downy excre-
tion. These clusters often attract attention by the curious
12

162 THE STUDY OF IN" SECTS.

habit that the insects have of waving their bodies up and
down, the plume-like masses of excretion rendering them
very conspicuous. When an infested limb is jarred the
Aphids emit a shower of honey-dew. Owing to the abun
dance of this secretion, the branches and leaves of an infested
tree become blackened by growths of fungi, as with the
preceding species.

The Woolly-louse of the Apple, Schizoneura lanigera
(la-nig'e-ra), is one of the best-known pests of the fruit-
grower. In its most conspicuous form it appears on the
trunks and limbs of apple-trees, in clusters of individuals,
which are conspicuous on account of the woolly excretion
with which the bodies are covered. It is especially in-
jurious to young trees, the bark of which becomes deeply
pitted and scarred by its attacks. The bark apparently
ceases to grow at the point of attack, but swells into a
large ridge about the cluster of lice, leaving them in a
sheltered pit. The lice also frequently congregate in the
axils of the leaves and the forks of the branches. This
species resembles the Grape Phylloxera in having a root-
inhabiting form, which causes knotty swellings on the fibrous
roots. It is the presence of this form that makes this
pest such a difficult one to combat. For as it works deep
in the ground upon the fibrous roots of trees, the same
difficulties are met in attempting to destroy it that are pre-
sented by the Grape Phylloxera. In fact, except in case of
an especially valuable tree, we do not believe that it will pay
to attempt to save a tree that has become badly infested
by the woolly aphis. It will be cheaper to dig the tree up
and burn it, and devote the ground to some other use.
Another species of tree can be safely planted in the same
place, but not an apple. Great care should be taken in
putting out trees from a nursery to see that they are free from
this pest. If there is any doubt the trees should be washed,
roots and all, in a strong solution of soap. It is well also tc
put in the forks of the trees pieces ot h-ird so an. -vhich will

HEMIPTERA. 163

be dissolved and washed down by the rains. This will serve
to destroy certain other pests, as well as the woolly aphis
In case it is desired to rid an infested tree of this pest, the
trunk form should be washed off with a strong solution of

o

soap applied with a sponge, taking care to destroy all eggs ;
and the ground should be treated with carbon bisulphide, as
for the Grape Phylloxera.

Family ALEYROPID.E (Al-eu-rod'i-dse).
TJie A ley r odes (Al-cu-ro' des).

The insects of the genus Aleyrodcs were for a long time
classed with the Coccidae. In their immature state they are
scale-like in form (Fig. 200), and often somewhat resemble
certain species of Lecanium. But the
mature insects differ so much from the
Coccids that the genus has been sepa-
rated as a distinct family. They are very
small insects; the species with which I
am acquainted have an expanse of
wings of about one eighth of an inch.
Both sexes are winged ; and, as with

. , TT .1 / -j FIG. 200. Aleyrodet

other Hemiptera except the Loccids,

there are two pairs of wings. In the adult state, all the
species are nearly of the same color ; the wings are white,
sometimes spotted ; the body is usually yellowish, sometimes
pinkish, and more or less spotted with black. The most
striking character presented by the adults, in addition to the
fact that both sexes are winged and each has two pairs of
wings, is the presence of a whitish powder with which the
wings and body are covered. It is this character that
suggests the name of the genus, which is from the Greek
aleurodes, like flour.

1 64 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family COCCID^; (Coc'ci-dae).
The Scale-bugs or Bark-lice, Mealy-bugs, and others.

The family Coccidae includes the Mealy-bugs, the Scale-
bugs or Bark-lice, and certain other insects for which there
are no popular names. In this family we find those mem=
bers of the Hemiptera that depart most widely from the
type of the order. In fact this is a very anomalous group,
the species differing greatly in appearance, habits, and meta-
morphoses from those of the most closely allied families.
Not only do the members of this family appear very unlike
other insects, but there is a wonderful variety of forms within
the family, and even the two sexes of the same species differ
as much in the adult state as members of distinct orders.

The males of Coccidae, unlike all other Hemiptera,
undergo a complete metamorphosis. The adult males have
only a single pair of wings, the hind wings being represented
by a pair of club-like halteres. Each of these is furnished
with a bristle, which in all the species we have studied is
hooked, and fits in a pocket on the wing of the same side
(Fig. 202). The male in the adult state has no organs for
procuring food, as the mouth-parts disappear during the
metamorphosis of the insect, and a second pair of eyes ap-
pear in their place. The adult female is always wingless,
and the body is either scale-like or gall-like in form, or grub-
like and clothed with wax. The waxy covering may be in
the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of a continuous
layer, or of a thin scale, beneath which the insect lives.

Among the Coccidae are found many of the most serious
pests of horticulturists. Scarcely any kind of fruit is free
from their attacks, and certain species of scale-insects and
mealy-bugs are constant pests in conservatories. The ease
with which these insects or their eggs can be transported
long distances while yet alive, on fruit or living plants, has

HEMIPTERA.

I6 5

caused many species that infest cultivated plants to become
world-wide in distribution.

During recent years much attention has been paid to
devising methods of destroying these pests. Various soapy

FIG. 202. The Scurfy Bark-louse. Chionasf>is furfurus : i, scales natural size; ia,
scale of male enlarged ; i(5, adult male enlarged ; ir, scale of female enlarged.

or alkaline washes, and one made of lime, salt, and sulphur, are
now used on the trees with deciduous foliage; the wash is
applied during the winter while the trees are naked. In the
case of orange and lemon trees, which are constantly clothed
with leaves, a large tent is lowered over the tree and a

1 66

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

poisonous gas (hydrocyanic-acid gas) is generated within the
tent.

A number of useful insects belong to this family. Several
species furnish dye-stuffs. The best known of these is
Coccus cacti, the dried bodies of which are known as Cochi-
neal. The stick lac of commerce, from which shell-lac or
shellac is prepared, is a resinous substance excreted by
a species, Carteria lacca (Car-ter'i-a lac'ca), which lives on
the young branches of several tropical trees, and the bodies
of these insects, which are obtained from the stick lac, furnish
the coloring agents known as lac dye. China wax is another
substance for which we are indebted to this family. It is the
excretion of an insect known as Pe-la, Ericcrns pc-la (E-ri-
ce'rus). In fact many species of this family excrete wax in
considerable quantities.

Among the more prominent members of this family are
the following :

The Cottony-cushion Scale, Iccrya pnrcJiasi (I-ce'ry-a

pur'cha-si). Tin's beautiful in
sect (Fig. 203) was at one time
the most dangerous insect

f* 1 A

pest in California, and did a
great amount of injury. It is
an introduced Australian spe-
cies, and has been subdued to
a great extent by the intro-
duction of an Australian Lady-
bug, J^Y/<?/?tf(Ve-da'li-a), which
preys upon it. The body of
the adult female is scale-like,
dark orange-red, and has the
dorsal surface more or less

Fir, .203. Icerya fiurchasi Females, adult COV ered WJtll a white or yel-
and young:, on nrange. (From the Author s *

Report for 1880.) lo\v ish-wii ite powder. The in-

sect secretes a large egg-sac, which is beautifully ribbed.

Mealy-bugs, Dactylopius (Dac-ty-lo'pi-us). The

HEMIPTERA.

167

FIG. 205 Dattylop.us citri^ le-
male, enlarged. (From tlie
Author's Report for 1880.)

FIG. zo^. Dticty.'opius lonispi-
niis. female, cnlaiged. (From
the Author's Report for 1880.)

FlG lobKermefSV^onQuercusagrifoliA. Adult females on stem ; immature males
on leaves. (From the Author's Report for 1880.)

1 68

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Mealy Bugs are the most common and the most noxious of
green-house pests; and in the warmer regions, as in Florida,
they infest plants in the open air. Two species are shown
greatly enlarged in Figures 204 and 205. These insects are
extremely difficult to combat, as the white powder with
which the body is clothed protects them from the sprays
and washes ordinarily used.

Kcnncs. Species of this genus are common upon oaks
wherever they grow. These insects are remarkable for the
wonderful gall-like form of the adult females. So striking is
this resemblance, that they have been mistaken for galls by
many entomologists. Figure 206 represents a species of this
genus upon Qucrcus agrifolia. The gall-like swellings on the
stem are the adult females ; the smaller scales on the leaves
are the immature males.

Orthezia (Or-the'zi-a). The members of this genus

occur not uncommonly on vari-
ous weeds. They are remark-
able for the calcareous secretion
with which the body is clothed.
This is in the form of long
plates. Figure 207 represents
a nymph ; in the adult female
the secretion becomes more
elongated posteriorly, and
forms a sac containing the eggs

mixed with a fine down. Later

when the young are born, they
remain in the sac till they have
themselves secreted a sufficient

'rthezia, enlarged. (From ~ mrmn f nf tlie larrmll-ir- rmff-pr

nor's Report for isso.) lamellar matter

to cover them.

Pulvinaria (Pul-vi-na'ria). This genus includes species
in which the body of the female resembles Lecanium, de-
scribed below, but which excrete a large cottony egg-sac.
This egg-sac is not ribbed, but is of the form shown in

FIG. 207.

the Author

HEMIPTERA.

169

Figure 208. The species figured here is sometimes very
injurious to maple-trees; it also infests grape-vines and
other plants.

FIG. 208. Pulvinaria innunierabilis. Female on grape, natural size. (From the

Author's Report for 1880.)

Lecanium (Le-ca'ni-um). The species of the genus Le-
can i urn abound everywhere ; they occur on all kinds of

FIG. 209. Lecanium oletx ; la, insect enlarged. (From the Author's Report for 1880.)

plants, both in conservatories and in the open air. Some of
hem are known to gardeners as " soft-scales." But the

170

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

scientific name is coming into general use; it is a common
thing now to hear fruit-growers speak of the Lecaniums,
especially in California. The Lecaniums are naked scale
insects, the scale being the body of the insect. These
insects are flattish or more or less hemispherical, the differ-
ent species differing in form, and are usually dark brown in

FIG. 210. Lecanium hesperidiim. (From the Author's Report for 1880.)

color. The eggs, or the young in the viviparous species, are
deposited beneath the scale-like body of the female. Figure
209 represents Lecanium olece (e'le-ae), which is very com.
mon in California, where it is known as the black scale;
Figure 2IO, the soft scale, Lecanium Jiespcridum (hes-per'i-
dum), which is common on various plants in all parts of

HEMIPTERA.

171

this country; and Figure 211, the hemispherical scale,
Lecanhim JiemispJicericum (hem-i-sphaer'i-cum), which occurs
in conservatories everywhere, and in the open air in Cali-
fornia.

The Armored-scales Sub-family Diaspince (Di-as-pi'nae). -
The great majority of the common scale insects of this

JkaJTX. Jll

FlG. wisLecaniumhemispha-ricuiii; 3^, insect enlarged. ^From the Author's Re por

for 1880.)

country differ from the forms described above in that the
body of the insect, except for a very short period after
birth, is covered with a scale composed in part of an excre-
tion of the insect and partly of molted skins. Thus in the
Lecaniums the scale-like object is the body of the insect;
but in the case of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, the Pernicious

'72

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Scale, and of many other forms, the scale-like object com-
monly seen is not the insect, but an armor beneath which it
lives.

The young insects of this sub-family resemble in general
appearance those of other scale insects. Their active stage,
however, is much shorter. After crawling about over the

i IG. 212. Ckionaspis pinifolice : 2, scales on Pinus strobus, natural size, leaves stunted;
aa, leaves of P. strobus not stunted by scale insects; 2<5, scale of female, usual
form, enlarged; zc, scale of female, wide forta, eolanjsd ; zd, scale of male en-
larged.

twigs of a tree for a few days, the young scale insect settles
upon a suitable place and immediately begins to excrete
a cottony substance which soon becomes compacted into a
thin pellicle covering the body. As the insect grows and
needs to shed its skin, this cast skin is joined to the excretion
and forms a part of the scale. This is the bright-colored,
nipple-like prominence, seen in the centre of the Pernicious

HEMIPTERA.

'73

Scale and of the Red Scale of the Orange ; and it may be seen
at the smaller end of the scale of the Oyster-shell Bark-louse.
The position of this cast skin in the scale differs in differ-
ent genera, and forms a good character for classification.

Closely allied species differ but little in the form of the
scale. To distinguish these it is necessary to study the

FIG. 213. Aspidiotus aurantii ; scales on leaves of orange, natural size; la, adult male>
much enlarged; 16, scale of female enlarged; ic, scale of male, enlarged.

insects themselves, which are found beneath the scales
The distinctions between closely allied species are such,
that it requires very close observation and much skill in this
particular line to make the determinations, a careful prepa-
ration of the specimens and an excellent microscope being
necessary requisites.

The different species of scale-insects vary as regards their
food habits. We find that certain species infest particular

174 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

plants and will feed upon no others ; thus, the Red-scale of
the Orange does not trouble deciduous fruits. On the other
hand, other species have a wide range of food plants. This
is the case of the Greedy-scale, which infests a great variety
of both cultivated and wild plants.

Figure 202, page 165, represents the Scurfy Bark-louse,
CJiionaspis furfurus (Chi-o-nas'pis fur'fur-us), a species very
widely distributed on apple, pear, and cherry ; Figure 212, the
Pine-leaf Scale, CJiionaspis pinifolite (pin-i-fo'li-ae), which
occurs on various species of pine and spruce in all parts of
the United States where these trees grow; and Figure 213
represents the red scale of California, Aspidiotus aurantii
(As-pid-i-o'tus an ran'ti-i), which is very destructive to
oranges and lemons.

KIG. 214. .Afr/to apiculata. See p. 131.

CHAPTER XV.

Order NEUROPTERA (Neu-rop'te-ra).

The Dobson, Aphis-lions, Ant-lions, and others.

The members of this order have four wings ; these are mem*
branous and furnished with numerous veins, and usually with
many cross veins. The head is not prolonged into a beak. The
mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is
complete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words : neuron, a
nerve ; andpteron, a wing. It refers to the numerous nerves,
or veins as they are more commonly called, with which the
wings are furnished.

When the name Neuroptera was first used it was applied
to a much larger group of insects than now, a group which
has since been divided into many orders. So that now,
while the name expresses a character which is true of the
order, it is also true of many others.*

The order Neuroptera as now restricted is represented in
the United States by seven families. These can be separated
by the following table :

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF NEUROPTERA.

A. Prothorax as long as or longer than the mesothorax and the
metathorax combined.

B. Fore legs greatly enlarged and fitted for grasping, p. 179.

MANTISPID^E.

* The Neuroptera of the older Entomologists included the following
orders : Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Corroden-
tia, Mallophaga, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera.

175

176 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

BB. Fore legs not enlarged, and not fitted for grasping, p. 178.

RAPHIDIID.E.

AA. Prothorax not as long as the mesothorax and the metathorax
combined.

B. Hind wings broad at the base, and with that part nearest the
abdomen (the anal area) folded like a fan when not in use.

p. 176 SIALID.E.

BB. Hind wings narrow at base, and not folded like a fan when
closed.

C. Wings with very few veins, and covered with whitish powder.
(As this family includes only very rare insects it is not dis-
cussed in this book.) CONIOPTERYGID/E.

CC. Wings with numerous veins, and not covered with powder.
D. Antennae gradually enlarged towards the end, or filiform

with a terminal knob. p. 182 MYRMELEONIDVE.

DD. Antennae without terminal enlargement.

E. Some of the transverse veins between the costa and sub-
costa forked (in all common forms), wings brownish or

smoky, p. 181 HEMEROBIID^E.

EE. Transverse veins between the costa and subcosta simple,
wings greenish, p. 180 CHRVSOPID^E.

Family SlALID^E (Si-al'i-dae).
The Dobs on and others.

The members of this family differ greatly in size and ap-
pearance ; but they agree in having the hind wings wide at
the base, and in having that part of these wings nearest the
abdomen (the anal area) more or less folded in plaits when
the wings are closed.

The species that is most likely to attract attention is the
Horned Corydalis, Corydalis cornuta (Co-ryd'a-lis cor-nu'ta).
This is a magnificent insect, which has a wing expanse of
from four to nearly five and a half inches. Figure 215
represents the male, which has remarkably long mandibles,,
The female resembles the male, except that the mandibles
are comparatively short.

NEUROPTERA.

177

This species is common throughout the United States.
The larvae are called Dobsons by anglers and are used by
them for bait, especially for bass. Figure 216 represents a
full-grown Dobson, natural size. These larvae live under
stones in the beds of streams. They are most abundant where
the water flows swiftest. They are carnivorous, feeding
upon the nymphs of Stone-flies, May-flies, and other insects.

FIG. 215. Corydalis cornuta.

FIG. 216. Corydalis cornuta, larva.

When about two years and eleven months old, the larva leaves
the water, and makes a cell under a stone or some other
object on or near the bank of the stream. This occurs dur-
ing the early part of the summer ; here the larva changes to
a pupa. In about a month after the larva leaves the water
the adult insect appears. The eggs are then soon laid;
13

178 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

these are attached to stones or other objects overhanging
the water. They are laid in blotch-like masses, which are
chalky-white in color, and measure from half an inch to nearly
an inch in diameter. A single mass contains from two thou-
sand to three thousand eggs. When the larvae hatch they
at once find their way into the water, where they remain
until full grown.

There are other common species of the family which
closely resemble Corydalis but are smaller, the larger ones
measuring less than two and a half inches in length, and
having a wing expanse of not more than four inches. These
insects also differ from Corydalis in having three ocelli and
in lacking the sharp tooth-like angles on the sides of the back
part of the head. See Figure 215 of the adult Corydalis.
These species belong to the genus Chauliodes (Chau-li'o-des).

Chauliodes pecticornis (pec-ti-cor'nis) is a common species
with grayish wings and feather-like antennae. Chauliodes
serricornis (ser-ri-cor'nis) is also common ; this is a brownish-
black species with the wings spotted with white, and with
serrate antennae.

Family RAPHIDIID^E (Raph-i-di'i-dae.)
The Raphidians (Ra-phid 1 i-ans).

The members of this family are found in this country
only in the far West. They are strange-appearing insects,
the prothorax being greatly elongated, like the neck of a
camel (Fig. 217). The female bears a long,
slender, sickle-shaped ovipositor at the end
of the abdomen. The fore legs resemble

FlG.217. tfrt//z;W/a, . .

female. the other pairs of legs, and are borne at the

hinder end of the prothorax.

The larvae are found under bark and are carnivorous.
We have found them common under the loose bark of the
Eucalyptus. They also occur in orchards, and doubtless do
good by destroying the larvae and pupae of the Codlin-moth.

NEUROPTERA. 1/9

Living specimens of these insects have been sent to Aus-
tialia by our government in the hope of introducing the
species there, and thus doing something towards repaying
the debt that we owe that country for the Australian Lady-
bug, which has rendered us great service in the destruction
of the Cottony-cushion Scale in California.

The family is represented by two genera, Raphidia (Ra-
phid'i-a) and Inoccllia (In-o-cel'li-a). In the former there
are three simple eyes on the top of the head between the
compound eyes ; in the latter these ocelli are wanting.

Family MANTISPID^E (Man-tis'pi-dae).
The ]\Iantis-like Neuroptcra.

The members of this family are even stranger in appear-
ance than the Raphidians. Here, as in that family, the
prothorax is greatly elongated ; but the members of this
family can be easily recognized by their remarkable fore
legs, which are greatly enlarged and resemble those of the
Praying Mantes in form (Fig.
2 1 8). These legs are fitted for
seizing prey; and, in order
that they may reach farther
forward, they are joined to
the front end of the long pro-
thorax. In the adult state
these insects are predaceous;
while the larvae, so far as is F|G
known, are parasitic in the
egg-sacs of spiders. of the parts "

Five species of the family are known from the United
States ; four of these belong to the genus Mantispa (Man-
tis'pa) and one to Sympliasis (Sym/pha-sis).

i8o

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family CHKYSOPID^ (Chry-sop'i-dae).
The Lace-winged-flies or Aphis-lions.

If one will search the foliage of herbs, shrubs, or trees,
there may be found, running rapidly around on the leaves,
sturdy, spindle-formed, little insects that have great sickle-
shaped jaws (Fig. 219). These larvae are always hungry,
and will kill and eat any insects that they can overpower ;

FIG. 219. Eggs, larva, cocoon, and adult of Chrysopa.

but as they are especially destructive to plant-lice, they are
called Aphis-lions.

When an Aphis-lion is full grown it rolls itself up into a
tiny ball and weaves around itself a glistening, white
cocoon, which looks like a large seed-pearl. It may be
supposed that while the Aphis-lion is secluded in this pearly
cell it repents its greedy, murderous ways, and changes in
spirit ; at least the body changes greatly, for, after a time, a
circular lid is made in the cocoon, and out of this emerges
a beautiful, dainty creature, with delicate-veined, green
wings, a pale green body, slender, brown antennas, and
a pair of large eyes that shine like melted gold. It is

NEUKOPTERA. l8l

sometimes called Golden-eyes, and sometimes, a Lace-winged-
fly, from its appearance. The Lace-wing is a prudent
mother ; she knows that if she lays her eggs together on a
leaf the first Aphis-lion that hatches will eat for his first
meal all his unhatched brothers and sisters. She guards
against this fratricide by laying each egg on the top of a
stiff stalk of hard silk about half an inch high. Groups of
these eggs are very pretty, looking like a tiny forest of
white stems bearing on their summits round glistening fruit.
When the first of the brood hatches, he scrambles down as
best he can from his egg perch to the surface of the leaf,
and runs off, quite unconscious that the rest of his family
are reposing in peace high above his head.

The mouth-parts of these larvae are very unusual in
form. The mandibles are very long ; on the lower side of
each of them there is a furrow the entire length ; into this
furrow the long and slender maxilla fits. In this way the
mandible and the maxilla of each side form a tube, through
which the blood of the prey of the insect can be drawn.
This explains why an Aphis lion holds its prey on the tips
of its long jaws, at arm's length, as it were, while sucking
its blood.

Nearly all of the members of this family belong to the
genus Chrysopa (Chry-so'pa).

Family HEMEROBIID^ (Hem-e-ro-bi'i-dae).
The Hemerobians (Hem-e-ro'bi-ans).

The common members of this family are rather dark-
colored insects, with the wings mottled with dark brown or
smoky specks, and with some of the veins between the ccuta
and subcosta forked.

The most conspicuous member of the family is Polys-
tcechotes punctatus (Pol-ys-tcech'o-tes punc-ta'tus), which is
represented natural size by Figure 220. The larva is
unknown.

1 82

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The larger number of the species of this family belong
to the genus Hemerobius (Hem-e-ro'bi-us). These are small-

ish insects, the largest of which
expands hardly an inch. They
occur in forests, and especially
on cone -bearing trees. The
larvae bear a strong resem-

FIG. 220. Polystoechotes punctatus.

blance to the Aphis-lions, and like them feed upon Aphids
and other small insects. After sucking the blood from their
victims, they make cloaks for themselves of the empty skins.

Family MYRMELEONID^: (Myr-me-le-on'i-dae).
The Ant-lions and others.

The Ant-lions, Myrmeleon (Myr-me'le-on). In sandy
places beneath overhanging cliffs, beneath buildings, and
along sandy banks where the sun shines warmest, there may
be found, in all parts of our land, little, funnel-shaped pits
one or two inches across (Fig. 221). The sides are smooth
and as steep as the sand
will lie ; and at the bottom
may be seen two small
curved objects. All is still
and motionless until some
ant, hurrying along with
mind intent upon business,
carelessly runs over the edge of one of these pitfalls. Then
the ant commences to slide down, while some force below
throws out the sand from under its struggling feet, until it
slides into the bottom, where literally jaws of death are
awaiting it. For the curved objects are a pair of jaws,
attached to a strong head, and closely connected with a
greedy stomach. If we dig out the owner of the jaws we
find it a spry, humpbacked creature, which moves backward
more easily than forward. It is worth while to collect some

FIG. 221. Pitfall of an Ant-lion.

NKUROPTERA.

183

of these larvse, and place them in a basin of sand, and
watch them build their pits. They do this by using the head
for a shovel. Sometimes when an ant seems likely to escape,
the Ant-lion will throw up a torrent of sand so that it will
descend on the victim, knocking it back into the pit.

When ready to change to a pupa the Ant-lion makes for
itself a little, round cocoon of sand fastened together and lined
with silk. The adult Ant-lion is a graceful insect with long,
narrow, delicate wings, and a slender body (Fig. 222).

FIG. 222. Larva, cocoon with pupa-skin projecting, and adult of an Ant-lion.

Certain members of this family differ from the ant-lions
in having long, filiform antennae, which are suddenly en-
larged at the end. These belong to the genus Ascalaphns
(As-eal'a-phus).

CHAPTER XVI.

Order MECOPTERA (Me-cop'te-ra).

TJie Scorpion-flies and others.

The members of this order have four wings ; these are
membranous, and furnished ivith numerous veins. The head
is prolonged into a beak, at the end of which biting mouth
parts are situated. The metamorphosis is complete.

This is a small order composed of very remarkable in-
sects. The most striking character common to all is the
shape of the head, which is prolonged into a beak (Fig. 223).
The name Mecoptera is from two Greek words ;
mccos, length ; and pteron, a wing. This order
includes only a single family, the Panorpidce.

Family PANORPIDCE (Pa-nor'pi-dae).

The Scorpion-flics and others.

We have found representatives of this family
quite abundant on rank herbage growing on
FIG. 223 Head ^' le banks of a shaded stream; we have also
wr/ llof/V found them in damp woods where there was a
luxuriant undergrowth of herbaceous plants.
These insects take flight readily when disturbed ; they are car-
nivorous both in the adult and in the larval state. The larvae
larvae so far as known are remarkable on account of their
great resemblance to caterpillars. Not only is the form of
the body like that of a caterpillar, but the abdomen is fur-
nished with fleshy pro-legs. There are, however, eight pairs
of these ; while caterpillars, as a rule, have only five.

184

MECOPTERA.

I8 5

The most common members of this family are the
Scorpion-flies, Panorpa (Pa-nor'pa). These are called Scor-
pion-flies on account of the peculiar form of the caudal part
of the abdomen of the male (Fig 223). This at first sight
suggests the corresponding part of a scorpion ;
but in reality the two are very different. The
last segment, instead of ending in a sting like
that of a scorpion, is greatly enlarged and bears
a pair of clasping organs. The wings are nar-
row but are well developed, being longer than
the body. In our more common species they are FlG 224 ._/> a .
yellowish, spotted with brownish black (Fig. 224). " orfa > aduk<

Very closely allied to the Scorpion-flies are the insects of
the genus Bittacus (Bit'ta-cus). These insects have long
narrow wings, long legs, and a slender abdomen. They re-
semble crane-flies very closely when on the wing. In this
genus the caudal appendages of the male are not enlarged as
in Panorpa.

The species of the genus Boreus (Bo're-us) are remarka-
ble for occurring on snow, in the winter, in our Northern
States.

CHAPTER XVII.

Order TRICHOPTERA (Tri-chop'te-ra).

The Caddice-flies or Caddice-worms.

The members of this order have four wings; these are
membranous, furnished with numerous longitudinal veins but
with only feiv cross veins, and are more or less densely clothed
with hairs. The month-parts are rudimentary \ The meta-
morphosis is complete.

The Caddice-flies are moth-like insects which are com-
mon in the vicinity of streams, ponds, and lakes; and they
are also frequently attracted to lights at night.

The body-wall of these insects is soft, being membran-
ous or at the most parchment-like, and is thickly clothed
with hairs. There are usually four ample wings. These
are membranous ; but the fore pair are more leathery than
the hind pair. When not in use they are folded against
the sides of the abdomen, in an almost vertical position,
and give the insect a narrow and elongated appearance
(Fig. 225). The wings are more or less densely clothed

with hairs ; and in some cases the
hairs are scale-like in form. The hind
wings are usually broader than the
fore wings, and are often longitudi-

F,G. 225 .-Caddice-fly. na jj y fo j ded j n repose A11 haye nu _

merous longitudinal veins, but the cross veins are few.

The name of the order is from two Greek words : thrix,
a hair; and pteron, a wing.

The order includes only a single family, the Phryganeidce.

186

TRICHOPTERA. 1 87

Family PHRYGANEID^E (Phryg-a-ne'i-dae).
The Caddicc-flies or Caddice-worms.

The young naturalist loves to lie face downward on the
bank of a brook, and, with shaded eyes, watch the busy life
that goes on there. Among the astonishing things he sees
are little bundles of sticks or masses of stones moving about
the bottom of a quiet pool as if they were alive; and yet if
he takes them out they seem dead enough. But when
he pulls them apart he finds that each is a tube lined
with silk within which a whitish larva lives. This larva,
when it wishes to move, puts out the front part of its body,
so that it can creep with its legs over the bottom of the
stream, or climb up and down water-plants, dragging its
house along after it. When molested it draws back into its
tube, and is safe. Larvae of this sort are called Caddice-
worms ; and the adult insects are known as Caddice-flies.

There are very many species of Caddice-worms ; and each
species makes a particular kind of tube. Some Caddice-
worms are carpenters, building their houses of straws or

sticks. These are usu-
ally placed lengthwise
the body (Fig. 226);
but certain species that
FIG. 226. make their houses chief-

ly of straws fasten the straws crosswise like the logs of a
log-house (Fig. 227). These log-house builders
often have the curious habit of decorating their
houses by fastening snail-shells to the outside.
And strangely enough they do not always take
empty shells for this purpose; we have found
shells containing living snails securely fastened FlG - "'/
to the outside of the house of a Caddice-worm. In this case
the snail was afforded comparatively rapid transportation
whether it desired it or not. Fortunately the species that

1 88 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

make this style of house live in still water, and may, there-
fore, be easily kept alive in aquaria.

There are caddice-worm houses closely resembling in plan
those just described but differing in appearance, being made
of bits of moss. Sometimes the houses are built of leaves ;
these may be fastened so as to form a flat case ; or are ar-
ranged in three planes, so as to form a tube, a cross-section
of which is a triangle.

Other Caddice-worms are masons, building their houses of
grains of sand or of small stones. Sometimes these houses
are tubes very regular in outline, being composed only of
grains of sand fastened together with silk ; but certain spe-
cies of Mason Caddice-worms fasten larger stones on each side
of this tube of sand (Fig. 228). Some of the species that

FIG. 228. FIG. 229.

build tubes of sand make spiral houses which very closely

resemble in form snail-shells (Fig. 229).

Whether stones or wood are used to build these houses

the material is always fastened together by silk, which the

larvae spin from the mouth in the same manner as do cater-
pillars. In some species the case is
composed entirely of silk. Figure 230
represents the form of such a case, which

FlC. 230, . . r i i

is common in some of our lakes.

Among the simplest of the -various forms of houses built
by Caddice-worms are those made by certain species that live
under stones in rapid streams. These consist merely of a
few pebbles fastened to the lower surface of a larger stone
by threads of silk. In the space between these pebbles the
worm ma^es a more or less perfect tube of silk, within which

TRICHOPTERA. 189

it Jives. Very little respect for the architectural skill of
these builders is commanded by their rude dwellings. But
if one ^ooks a little farther, something will be found that is
Sure to excite admiration. The dweller within this rude re-
treat is a fisherman ; and stretched between two stones near
by can be seen his net. This is made of silk. It is usually
funnel-shaped, opening up-stream ; and in the centre of it
there is a portion composed of threads of silk extending in
two directions at right angles to each other, so as to form
meshes of surprising regularity. It is as if a spider had
stretched a small web in the water where the current is the
swiftest. These nets occur in rapids between stones, but in
many places they are to be found in greater numbers along
the brinks of falls. Here they are built upon the surface of
the rock, in the form of semi-elliptical cups, which are kept
distended by the current. Much of the coating of dirt with
which these rocks are clothed in summer is due to its being
caught in these nets. We have not yet observed the owners
of the nets taking their prey from them ; but we cannot
doubt that they are made to trap small insects or other ani-
mals that are being carried down-stream ; for the larvae of
the sub-family to which these net-builders belong, the Hy-
dropsycliince, are known to be carnivorous. It should be
noted here, however, that the greater number of Caddice-
worms are herbivorous.

When a Caddice-worm gets ready to change to a pupa it
retires into its house and builds a door to keep intruders
out ; but the door always has an opening to allow the water
to flow in so that the pupa can breathe. Sometimes a simple
grating of silk is made over the entrance.

On one occasion the writer had the good fortune to ob-
serve a Caddice-fly leave the water and take its first flight.
The specimen was one of the net-building species, Hydrop-
syche (Hy-drop-sy'che), which I was breeding in an aquarium
in my laboratory. It swam to the surface of the water
repeatedly, using its long middle legs. When swimming,

I9O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

these legs were extended at right angles to the body like a
pair of oars. The insect was unable to crawl up the vertical
side of the aquarium, and after clinging to it for a short time
it would lose its hold and sink back to the bottom. After
watching it for a time I lifted it from the water by means of
a stick. At this time its wings were in the form of pads,
which were but little, if any, longer than the wing-pads of
the pupa, as shown by the cast pupa-skin found floating on
the water. The instant the creature was free from the water
its wings expanded to their full size, and immediately it flew
away several feet. In my efforts to catch the insect I found
that it had perfect use of its wings, although they were so
recently expanded. The time required for the insect to
expands its wings and take its first flight was scarcely more
than one second ; it was certainly less than two. As these
insects normally emerge from rapidly-flowing streams which
dash over rocks, it is evident that if much time were required
for the wings to become fit for use, as is the case with most
other insects, the wave succeeding that which swept one from
the water would sweep it back again and destroy it.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Order LEPIDOPTERA (Lep-i-dop'te-ra).

The Mot/is or Millers, tJie Skippers, and the Butterflies.

The members of this order have four zvings ; these are
membrancns, and covered with overlapping scales. The month-
parts are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is complete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words : lepis,
a scale ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the
wings of these insects are covered with scales. Every lad
that lives in the country knows that the wings of moths and
butterflies are covered with dust, which comes off upon one's
fingers when these insects are handled. This dust when
examined with a microscope is found to be composed of very
minute scales of regular form ; and when a wing is looked at
in the same way, the scales are seen arranged with more or
less regularity upon it. The body, the legs, and other
appendages are also covered with scales.

The scales of Lepidoptera are modified hairs. That is,
they are hairs which, instead of growing long and slender as
hairs usually do, remain short, but grow very wide as com-
pared with their length. Every gradation in form can be
found from the ordinary hair-like form, which occurs most
abundantly upon the body, to the short and broad scale,
which is best seen upon the wings.

There is a great difference among the insects of this order
regarding the regularity of the arrangement of the scales

iqi

192

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

upon the wings. With some of the lower moths the scales

are scattered irregularly over
the wings. But if the wing of
one of the higher butterflies be
examined with a microscope,
the scales will be found arranged
in regular, overlapping rows;
the arrangement being as reg-
ular as that of the scales on a
fish or of the shingles on a roof
(Fig. 231). In the upper part
of the figure the membrane is
represented with the scales re-
moved.

The use of the scales on the wings is to strengthen them.
We thus see that the wings of these insects are furnished
with much fewer cross veins than are the wings of similar

^j

size in other orders. A secondary use of these scales is that
of ornamentation ; for the beautiful colors and markings of
these insects are due entirely to the scales, and are destroyed
when the scales are removed. Upon the body, legs, and

FIG. 231. Part of wing- of butterfly,
greatly magnified.

FIG. 232. Maxillse of cotton-moth, and tip of same enlarged.

other appendages, the scales and hairs doubtless serve to
protect the insect, being a sort of armor.

The mouth-parts of moths and butterflies are especially
adapted for sucking nectar from flowers. If the head of a
butterfly be examined, there will be found a long sucking

LEP1D OP TERA. 1 93

tube, which when not in use is coiled on the lower side of
the head between two forward-projecting appendages. This
long sucking tube is composed of the two maxillae, greatly
elongated, and fastened together side by side. In Figure 232
mere is represented a side view of the maxillae of a moth ;
and in Figure 233 a cross-section of these organs. Each

Fit;. 233. Cross-section of maxillae.

maxilla is furnished with a groove, and the two maxillae are
so fastened together that the two grooves form a tube through
which the liquid food is sucked. As a rule the maxillae of
insects of this order are merely fitted for extracting the
nectar from flowers, but sometimes the tips of the maxillee
are armed with spines, as shown in Figure 232. This enables
the insect to lacerate the tissue of ripe fruits and thus set
free the juice, which is then sucked up. Many moths do not
eat in the adult state; with these the maxillae are wanting.
The two forward projecting organs between which the
maxillae are coiled when present are the labial palpi. In
some moths the maxillary palpi are also developed.

The larvae of Lepidoptera are known as caterpillars.
They vary greatly in form and appearance ; but are usually
cylindrical, and provided with from eight to sixteen legs,
six thoracic legs, and from two to ten abdominal legs. The
thoracic legs, which are finally developed into the legs of the
adult, have a hard external skeleton ; and are jointed, taper-
ing, and armed at the end with a little cla\v. The abdominal

legs, which are shed with the last larval skin, are thick.
14

194

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

fleshy, without joints, elastic or contractile, and are generally
surrounded at the extremity by numerous, minute hooks
(Fig. 234) ; they are termed pro-legs.

~ -. \ ", -^

FIG. 234. Larva of a Hawk-rnoth.

Most caterpillars, except the larvae of butterflies, spin
cocoons (Fig. 235). In some instances, as in case of the

FIG. 235. Cocoon of a moth.

silkworms, a great amount of silk is used in the construction
of the cocoon; in others the cocoon is composed principally

LEPIDOPTERA. 1 95

of the hairs of the larva, which are fastened together with a
fine web of silk.

In the pupae of Lepidoptera the developing wings and
legs are folded upon the sides and breast ; the whole being
enclosed in a hard skin (Fig.
236).

The members of this order
as a rule feed upon plants, and
are not aquatic ; some, as the
Clothes-moth and the species
that destroy Scale-bugs, feed FlG - 2 36.-Pupa of a moth.

on animal matter, and a very few feed upon plants below
the surface of the water.

More than six thousand species of Lepidoptera are
known to occur in America, north of Mexico. These rep-
resent more than sixty families.

In order to give a synopsis of the Lepidoptera it is
necessary to enter into rather difficult technical details.
Hence this is done in that portion of this chapter designed
for advanced students and printed in fine type. The prin-
cipal divisions of the Lepidoptera that are appropriately
discussed here are three: the moths, the skippers, and the
butterflies :

TJie Moths. These are the insects commonly called
millers. Most of the species fly by night and are frequently
attracted to lights. When at rest the wings are either
wrapped around the body, or are spread horizontally, or are
folded roof-like on the abdomen; they are not held in a
vertical position above the body. The antennae of moths
are of various forms ; they are usually thread-like or feather-
like ; only in rare cases are they enlarged towards the tip.
The moths include all but the last six families of Lepidop-
tera.

The Skippers. The skippers are so called on account of
their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in the daytime and
dart suddenly from place to place. When at rest they

196 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

usually hold the wings erect in a vertical position like
butterflies; often the fore wings are thus held while the
hind wings are extended horizontally. The antennae are
thread-like, and enlarged towards the tip ; but in most cases
the extreme tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook.
The abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth
rather than that of a butterfly. This division includes two
families.

The Butterflies. The butterflies fly by day ; and when
at rest they fold the wings together above the back in a
vertical position. The antennae are thread-like with a club
at the tip, which is never recurved so as to form a hook.
The abdomen is slender. This division includes the last
four families described in this chapter.

Classification of the Lepidoptera.

{For Advanced Students.')

The study of the classification of the Lepidoptera is beset by a
peculiar difficulty. As these insects are clothed with scales com-
paratively little of their structure can be examined without injury to
the specimens studied. Fortunately, however, it has been found
that the various modifications of the framework of the wings afford
excellent clues to the relationships of the different groups; and these
modifications can be determined in most cases without serious injury
to the specimens. The structure of the antennae also can be easily
studied, and in many cases affords much help in determining the zoo-
logical position of an insect.

The first step to be taken in the study of the classification of
these insects is to become thoroughly familiar with the nomenclature
of the wing veins ; this is given on pages 64 to 66. It is a good plan
to take several of the larger moths and butterflies and make draw-
ings showing the courses of the veins of the wings in each, carefully
indicating the names or numbers of the veins on the drawings.
The making of such drawings will be of much use in fixing the ar-
rangement of the veins in the student's mind. It should be remem-
bered that veins IV and VI are not developed in this order.

As the scales on the lower surface of the wings are more closely
applied to the wings than are those on the upper surface, the veins
can be best seen when the wings are examined from below. The

LEPIDOPTERA.

veins can be rendered more distinct for a few seconds by putting a
drop of chloroform on the part of the wing to be examined ; this can
be easily done by means of a camel's-hair brush.

Sometimes it is necessary to remove the scales from a small part
of the wing in order to determine the nature of some characteristic;
this can be easily done with an artist's sable brush. A very small
brush is best for this purpose; and care should be taken not to break
the wing.

The above methods are all that are needed in the majority of
cases where the mere determination of an insect is the object. But
when a very careful study of the venation of a wing is to be made,
it should be bleached and mounted on a card or on a glass slip in
order that it may be studied with a compound microscope. The fol-
lowing is the method of bleaching wings:

1. Remove the wings carefully so as not to break the frenulum if
there be one; it is well to remove the patagium first.

2. Dip the wings in alcohol in order to wet them.

3. Immerse them for an instant in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid).
Use for this purpose dilute acid, one part acid to nine parts water.

4. Put them in Labaraque solution with the upper surface of the
wings down, and leave there till the color has been removed from the
scales. If a wing bleaches slowly, the process can be hastened by
dipping it in the dilute acid and returning it to the Labaraque
solution from time to time. This solution can be procured of most
druggists. It deteriorates if left exposed in strong sunlight. If it
cannot be obtained, use an aqueous solution of chloride of lime.

5. When a wing is bleached put it in alcohol and leave it there till
after it floats. This is to wash off the Labaraque solution. The
wing can then be mounted on a card. But it is better to mount it as
described below.

6. Transfer the wing to a clearing mixture, if it is to be mounted
in balsam, and leave it there five or ten minutes. This is to remove
any water there may be on it. A good clearing mixture can be made
by mixing two parts by weight of carbolic-acid crystals and three
parts of rectified oil of turpentine.

7. Put the wing on a glass slip with considerable clearing mixture
under it to avoid bubbles ; put Canada balsam on top, and cover with
thin glass. In the case of small wings, it is best to transfer them
from one solution to another, and to the glass slip by means of a
camel's-hair brush.

Wings bleached and mounted in this way make an important ad-
dition to a collection. The slides should be carefully labelled ; and

198

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the insect from which the wings were taken should be kept with the
slide. It is our practice to remove always the wings from the right
side, and then to mount the slide in the collection at the right of the
insect from which the wings were taken. Uniformity in this respect
adds greatly to the appearance of the collection.

The student should
study his larger speci-
mens first, leaving the
smaller ones till he has
acquired skill in this
work.

There are a few spe-
cial terms used in de-
scribing the wings of
the Lepidoptera which
should be learned:

Frenulum. In most
moths there is a strong
spine or a bunch of
bristles borne by the
hind wing at the hume-
ral angle (Fig. 237, /);

FlG. 237. Wings of Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis. this is the frenulum.

Its use is to insure the acting together of the two wings of one
side. Except in the Microlepidoptera the frenulum of the male
consists of a single strong spine;
that of the female of two or
more bristles.

Jitgum. In one suborder,
including only a few rare moths, j
there exists, instead of a fren-
julum, a lobe borne near the
base of the inner margin of the
fore wing (Fig. 238,7); this
is the jugum. See sub-order
Jugatae.

Discal Cell. Near the cen-
tre of the basal part of the
wing there is a large cell lying

VII2 VII,

FIG. 238. Wings of Hepialus gracilis.

between veins III and VII (Fig. 239, d.c.); this is the discal cell.
In the more generalized Lepidoptera this cell is divided into two
parts by the base of vein V (Fig. 239, hind wing); in such cases the

LEP1DOPTERA.

199

cell lying immediately behind vein III is cell III, and that lying
immediately behind vein V is cell V.

Accessory Cells. In many genera the branches of vein III of the
fore wings anastomose
so as to form one or
more cells beyond the
apex of the discal cells
(Fig. 239, (i.e.); these
are the accessory cells.

Discal Vein. - - The
cross vein at the outer
end of the discal cell is
termed the discal vein
(Fig. 239, </.z/.).

Patagia. At the
base of each fore wing
there is a scale-like ap-
pendage; these are the
patagia. The patagia
are borne by the protho-
rax, and in many cases
are capable of consider-
able movement.

In descriptions of
Lepidoptera reference is

, ... FIG. 2^0. Wings of Notolophus leucostigma..

often made to the palpi.

These form the double beak-like projection which extends forward
from the lower surface of the head. In most Lepidoptera only the
labial palpi are well developed; but in some of the more generalized
forms the maxillary palpi are also present.

The presence or absence of ocelli
is a character which is sometimes of
considerable importance. These or-
gans are situated, one on each side,
above the compound eye and near its

margin (Fig. 240). But it requires some
FIG. 240. Head of moth, showing . ..,

position of ocellus. skill to find them when they are present,

on account of the long scales clothing the head.

The Phyhgeny of the Lepidoptera. Since the general acceptance
of the theory of evolution that is, the theory that the higher animals
and plants have been developed from lower ones it has become evi-
dent that the only sure basis for classification is a knowledge of the

IX

2OO THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

history of the various races of animals and plants, or phylogeny (phy-
log'e-ny), as it is termed.

The scope of this book has not permitted an extended treatment
of this phase of the subject. There is space for only a few hints re-
garding the phylogeny of the families of a single order; but these
hints will serve as an illustration of a method of study. The Lepi-
doptera is chosen for this purpose, as the method has been applied to
this order more fully than it has to others.

It is a well-known fact that every kind of animal and plant trans-
mits a general likeness with individual differences to its offspring.

According to the Darwinian theory of natural selection these dif-
ferences or variations may be of any kind and in any direction. And
as many more animals are born or plants germinated than can live to
reach maturity, owing to the tendency of each kind to increase in a
geometrical ratio, each individual is subjected to a severe struggle for
existence.

The result of this struggle is that any individual possessing a for-
tunate variation that is, one that enables it to get its living and
escape its dangers more easily than its fellows will be more apt on
this account to reach maturity and propagate its kind than will less
fortunate individuals. Thus there is a thinning-out process which
tends to the production of more and more specialized forms of animals
and plants, i.e., forms adapted to the special conditions under which
they exist.

It should be remembered that the difficulties surrounding exisU
ence may be met in different ways; and that thus there may have
descended from a common ancestor very different forms, each well
fitted to meet the struggle for existence. See Chapter I, pp. i and 2.

Just what changes have taken place in the structure of the mem-
bers of any race is a difficult matter to determine, for, although many
fossils have been found, the record is still very incomplete. But for-
tunately something can be learned regarding this by the study of
living animals. For not all members of the same family, or order, or
class are equally specialized. Some retain more nearly than others
the form of their remote ancestors ; and by the study of these general-
ized forms, as they are termed, we can gain some idea of the struc-
ture of the animals of past ages, and of the ways in which existing
animals have been modified.

We will state very briefly some of the conclusions that we have-
reached regarding the phylogeny of the families of the Lepidoptcr;:.
These conclusions are based largely on a study of the wings. It is
hoped that other parts will be studied in the same way ere long.

LEPIDOPTERA.

2O I

In the flight of insects it is important that the two wings of each
side should act together, and we find that this is secured in most
orders by uniting them in some way. In the Lepidoptera two dis-
tinct methods are employed ; in some it is done by means of a. jugum,
in others by means of a frenulum or its substitute. As neither the
jugum nor the frenulum could be derived from the other, we infer
that the primitive Lepidoptera possessed neither of these organs, but
had wings that were quite distinct from each other. In the course of
time there was developed in some of the descendants of these primi-
tive forms a jugum ; while in others there was developed a frenulum.
Of course in each case the development was a gradual one, extending
through many generations. Thus the frenulum at first was probably
merely a bunch of hairs like
those elsewhere on the wings;
but these became stiffer and
stiffer in succeeding genera-
tions.

The descendants of those
ancient Lepidoptera in which a
jugum was developed constitute

the suborder Jugattz ; while the

descendants of those in which

a frenulum was developed con-
stitute the suborder Frenatce.
We know but little of the

Jugatae, as nearly all of them

have perished. There remain

only two small families, the

Hepialidae and the Microptery-

gidee. But these families are

very widely separated, and hence

it is safe to assume that they are

the remnants of what was in

past times a large fauna.

In the Frenatae, however, FlG 84I ._ WinRS of Anaaandria .

there exist to-day many families,

each exhibiting its own methods of specialization.

In some of these families the frenulum has been preserved and

perfected to a greater or less extent. But in others a curious change

has taken place.

It is obvious '.hat if the two wings of each side overlap to a great

extent, their acting together will be assured by this fact. And this is

2O2

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

what has taken place with the butterflies, the skippers, and certain
moths. With these insects the humeral angle of the hind wing has
been greatly enlarged, so that it projects far beneath the fore wing
(Fig. 241). When this has taken place there is no longer any need
of a frenulu-.n, and consequently this organ is no longer preserved by
natural selection. We find, therefore, that several families of Lepi-
doptera that belong to the suborder Frenatae, being descendants of

nil

Vila

VIII

FIG. 242. Wings of Bombyx mori.

ancient frenulum-bearing moth's, no longer possess a frenulum.
These are classed in the following synopsis as the frenulum-losers.
It is a very interesting fact, and one that bears out the theory
just stated, that in the more generalized of the frenulum-losing
moths, as the Bombycidse, the frenulum has not yet entirely dis-
appeared, but is preserved in a rudimentary state (Fig. 242). We
place the frenulum-losers last in a serial arrangement of the fami-

LEPIDOPTERA. 2O$

lies of Lepidoptera, regarding them as those that depart most widely
from the primitive type.

From the foregoing it will be seen that a study of the relation to
each other of the fore and hind wings gives us important hints as to
the probable courses development has taken in the different families.
Equally suggestive hints may be derived from a study of the venation
of the wings.

By an extended study of fossil forms and the more generalized of
living forms, the details of which study cannot be given here,* it has
been determined that in the primitive Lepidoptera vein V of both
fore and hind wings was well developed, and extended from the base
of the wing out through the discal cell. We .find that in certain
families of existing moths this vein is still preserved (see p. 221),
while in others it has been lost. Those families of the Frenatse in
which it is best and most uniformly preserved are grouped together
as the Generalized Frenatce (see the following synopsis), while those
in which it is lost or nearly so are considered more specialized.

With the loss of the base of vein V there occurs a connection of
its branches with veins III and VII, so that in the more specialized
forms these branches of vein V appear to be branches of those veins
(Fig. 241). A study of the extent to which this change has gone
gives much aid in determining the zoological position of the different
<renera and families. In certain families vein V 2 tends to become

r^

united to vein III ; in others it tends to become united to vein VII.
This too is an important character, of which use is made in the
following synopsis.

The number of anal veins is another character the study of which
throws much light on the relative position of the different forms. It
has been determined that the ancient Lepidoptera had at least three
anal veins in both fore and hind wings. This number has been pre-
served in one or both pairs of wings of the more generalized of living
moths, but has been reduced to two or even to one in the more
specialized families.

Enough has been said, without going into further details here, to
show that the way to determine the relationships of organized beings
is to determine the primitive form of their organs and the changes
that have been brought about in these organs by the action of natural

* The data upon which these conclusions are based are given at greater
length in an essay, by the senior author, entitled Evolution and Taxonomy.
This essay forms a part of the Wilder Quarter-Century Book, published by
the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y.

2O4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

selection. The classification of animals and plants should not be
merely the assorting of them into convenient pigeon-holes, but
a serious study of their blood-relationships.

The following synopsis will serve to show what we believe to be
the relations of the principal divisions of the order. Following this
synopsis there is a table for use in classifying specimens.

SYNOPSIS OF THE LEPIDOPTERA.

(See page 207 for a table for determining specimens.}

A. THE JUGATE LEPIDOPTERA. Moths in which the two wings of

each side are united by zjugum (Fig. 238,7), p. 214.

Suborder JUGAT^E.

B. The Swifts or Macrojugatce, p. 215 Family HEPIALID^E.

BB. The Little-wing Jugates or Microjugatce, p. 216.

Family MlCROPTERYGID^E.
AA. THE FRENATE LEPIDOPTERA. Moths, skippers, and butterflies

in which the two wings of each side are united by ^frenithtm (Fig.

237, /) or by its substitute, a large humeral angle of the hind wing

(Fig. 241), p. 2OI Suborder FRENAT^E.

B. THE GENERALIZED FRENATE. Moths that are supposed to
retain more nearly than any other Frenatae the form of the primi-
tive Frenatse, those that were the first to appear on earth. In
these generalized moths the wings approach the typical form;
the base of vein V of one or both pairs of wings is preserved
throughout a considerable part at least of the discal cell ; and
the anal veins are well preserved, there being two or three in
the fore wing and three in the hind wing. The frenulum is
usually well preserved.

The Flannel-moths, p. 218 Family MEGALOPYGID^E.

The Bag-worm Moths, p. 219 Family PSYCHID^E.

The Carpenter-moths, p. 221 Family COSSID^;.

The Slug-caterpillar Moihs, p. 223 Family EUCLEID^E.

The Smoky-moths, p. 226 Family PYROMORPHID^E.

BB. THE SPECIALIZED FRENATAE. Moths, skippers, and butter
flies that depart more widely than do the Generalized Frenat':
from the primitive type of Lepidoptera, being more highly modi-
fied for special conditions of existence. An indication of the
specialized condition of these insects is the modified form of the
wings. In nearly all the base of vein V has been lost and the
branches of this vein joined to veins III and VII.

LEPIDOP TERA . 2O5

C. THE MICROFRENAT^:. Frenulum-bearing moths, which are
usually of small, often minute, size. The anal area of the hind
wings is not reduced, having usually three anal veins except in
certain minute forms where a broad fringe has been substituted
for the membrane of this area.

The Pyralids, p. 228 Superfamily PYRALIDINA.

The Tortricids, p. 239 Superfamily TORTRICINA.

The Tineids, p. 246 Superfamily TINEINA.

The Clear-winged Moths, p. 259 Family SESIID^.

CC. THE SPECIALIZED MACROFRENAT^E. Specialized Frenatae
which are usually of medium or large size. This division
includes certain moths and all skippers and butterflies. In
these insects the anal area of the hind wing is reduced, con-
taining only one or two anal veins.

D. The Frenulitm-conservers. Specialized Macrofrenatse in
which the two wings of each side are united by a frenulum.
This group includes only moths.

E. Moths that appear to have a three -branched cubitus, only
vein V 3 being closely connected with vein VII. Vein V
either retains its primitive position midway between veins
III and VII or arises from the discal vein nearer to vein
III than to vein VII.*

The Dioptids, p. 262 Family DIOPTID^E.

The Prominents, p. 263 Family NOTODONTID^E.

The Measuring-worm Moths, p. 270.

Superfamily GEOMETRINA.

EE. Moths that appear to have a four-branched cubitus, the
base of vein V a of one or both pairs of wings being more
closely connected with vein VII than with vein III.
F. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings
is greatly extended, but which as a rule possess the
frenulum in one sex at least.

The Auzatids, p. 288 Family AuZATlDvE.

The Hook tip Moths, p. 289 Family DREPANID^:.

FF. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings
is not greatly extended.

G. The Noctuids and their Allies. Moths in which some
of the branches of vein III of the fore wings coalesce

* In many Hawk-moths vein V 2 nearly or quite retains its primitive
position ; but when it has moved from this position, it is nearer to vein VII
than to vein III. This family is placed, therefore, in the next division (EE)
of this synopsis.

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

beyond the discal cell, and which do not have what
appears to be a cross vein between veins II and III of
the hind wings.
The Cymatophorids, p. 291 .Family CYMATOPHORID^E.

The Owlet-moths, p. 293 Family NoCTUlD.'E.

The Tussock-moths, p. 308.. . .Family LYMANTRIIDTE.
The Wood nymph Moths, p. 313. Family AGARISTID^E.

The Pericopids, p. 316 Family PERICOPID^.

The Tiger-moths, p. 317 Family ARCTIID^E.

The Footman-moths, p. 324 Family LlTHOSHD.4.

The Zygaenids, p. 326 Family ZYG^NID^E.

GG. The Window -winged Moths. Moths in which vein
III of the fore wings is live-branched and in which all of
these branches arise from the discal cell (Fig. 404), p.

328 .Family THYRIDID^E.

GGG. The Hawk-moths, Moths in which there appears
to be a cross vein betvyeen veins II and III of the hind

wings (Fig. 407), p. 330 Family SPHINGID^E.

DD. The Frenulum-losers. Specialized Macrofrenatae, in which
the frenulum has been supplanted by a greatly extended
humeral area of the hind wings. In some of the more gen-
eralized forms a rudimentary frenulum persists (Bombycidae
and Lacosomidae). This division includes three groups of
families: the Frenulum-losing Moths, the Skippers, and the
Butterflies. The grouping together of the families included
in this division is merely provisional, as it is probable that
the loss of the frenulum has arisen independently in several
of them.

E. The Frenulum-losing Moths. In these moths the antennae
are usually pectinate ; they are never enlarged into a club
at the tip.

F. Moths with cubitus of the fore wings apparently three-
branched.

G. Moths in which veins III 3 and in 4 coalesce to a great
extent. The Saturnians. p. 339.

Supe family SATURNIINA.

GG. Moths in which veins Ills and Hh do not coalesce

beyond the discal cell. p. 357.. Family LACOSOMIDAE

FF. Moths in which cubitus of the fore wings is apparently

four-branched, p. 359 Family LASIOCAMPID^E.

EE. The Skippers. These are day-flying Lepidoptem whici>
resemble butterflies in usually holding their wings erect

LEPIDOPTERA. 2O/

when at rest, but are distinguished by the peculiar venation
of the fore wings, vein III being five-branched, and all the
branches arising from tiie discal cell. The antennae are
enlarged into a club towards the tip. p. 364.

Superfamily HESPERIINA.

EEE. The Butterflies. Day-flying Lepidoptera that hold
their wings erect when at rest, that have clubbed antennae,
and that differ from the Skippers in the venation of the
fore wings, some of the branches of vein III coalescing

beyond the discal cell Superfamily PAPILIONINA.

F. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently four-
branched. The Swallow-tail Butterflies, p. 375.

Family PAPILIONID/E.

FF. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently three-
branched.

G. Butterflies exhibiting no tendency to abortion of the
fore legs.

The Pierids. p. 381 Family PiERID^:.

GG. Butterflies exhibiting a marked tendency to abor-
tion of the fore legs.
The Gossamer-winged Butterflies, p. 388.

Family LYC^ENID.'E.
The Brush-footed Butterflies, p. 395.

Family NYMPHALID^;.

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF

LEPIDOPTERA.

A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. This division includes only
females. All males of Lepidoptera are winged.
B. The larvae case-bearers ; the adult female remaining within the

case to lay her eggs. p. 219 PSYCHID.E.

BB. The larvae not case-bearers; the wingless adult not in a case.
C. The adult remaining upon her cocoon to lay her eggs; the
body of the adult clothed with fine hairs, p. 308.

LYMANTRIID.E.

CC. The adult active, laying her eggs remote from her cocoon;
the body of the adult clothed with flattened scales, p. 270.

GEOMETRINA.

AA. Winged, fore and hind wings similar in form and venation, the
radius of the hind wings being, like that of the fore wings, five-
branched. (Fig. 238.) (Suborder Jitgatce.} [See also A A A.]

208 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

B. Moths of medium or large size. p. 215

BB. Minute moths, resembling Tineids in appearance, p. 214.

MlCROPTERYGIDJE.

AAA. Winged, fore and hind wings differing in form and venation;
the radius of the hind wings being simple, although frequently
apparently two- or three-branched ; this is due to the union of one
or two branches of media with it (Figs. 241, 242). (Suborder
Frenatce.)

B. Antennae of various forms, but never thread-like with a knob at
the extremity* (moths in part).

C. The fringe on the inner angle of the hind wings as long as, or
longer than, the width of the wing; the hind wings often

lanceolate, but never fissured, p. 246 TINEINA.

CC. The fringe on the hind wings shorter ; the hind wings not
lanceolate.
D. Wings fissured.

E. Each wing divided into six lobes, p. 238. ..ORNEODID^E.
EE. Wings never more than four-lobed ; usually the fore
wings are bilobed and the hind wings trilobed. p. 237.

PTEROPHORID-fli.

DD. Wings not fissured.

E. Fore wings very narrow, the width at the middle less
than one fourth the length of the wing; a considerable part
of the hind wings, and in many cases of the fore wings also,

free from scales, p. 259 SESIID^E.

EE. Wings scaled throughout, or if clear with the fore wings
triangular in outline.

F. Hind wings with three anal veins. Care must be taken
not to mistake a mere fold in the wing for a vein. When
there is no thickening of the membrane of the wing along
a fold it is not counted as a vein.

G. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings grown together
for a greater or less distance between the ape:: ~i the
discal cell and the apex of the wing, or in some ca^js
separate but very closely parallel, p. 228..PYRALIDINA.
GG. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings widely sep-
arate beyond the apex of the discal cell.

* In some moths the antennae are enlarged towards the tip, forming a
more or less distinct club ; but this club is quite different in shape from the
knob at the extremity of the antennae in the skippers and the butterflies. In
the moths with club-like antennae the ocelli are usually present, and the hind
wings bear a frenulum.

LEPID OP TERA . 2CX)

H. Microlepidoptera ; i.e., moths that are in most cases
of small or minute size ; with those included here
the palpi are well developed, often prominent when
the palpi are not prominent the antennae are at. least
as long as the front wings ; the fringe on the anal
angle of the hind wings is considerably longer than
elsewhere.

I. The second anal vein of the hind wings forked
towards the base. p. 239 TORTRICINA.

II. The second anal vein of the hind wings not
forked towards the base. p. 246 TINEINA.

HH. Macrolepidoptera ; i.e., moths usually of medium
or large size. With those included here the palpi
are small, rarely projecting beyond the head ; the
antennae are of moderate length ; and the fringe on
the anal angle of the hind wing is not longer than
elsewhere, or but slightly so.

I. Subcostaand radius of hind wings grown together
to near the end of the discal cell. (Fig. 267.)

J. Small black moths, with thinly scaled wings,
p. 226 PYROMORPHID^E.

JJ. Moths of medium size, and densely clothed
with long woolly hairs, which are light colored
or brown, p. 218 MEGALOPYGIDJE.

II. Subcosta and radius of hind wings distinct or
grown together for only a short distance.

J. Anal veins of the fore wings anastomosing so
as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253).

p. 219 PSYCHID/E.

JJ. Anal veins of fore wings not forked outwardly.
K. Vein V s of the fore wings arising from the
discal cell nearly midway between veins Vi
and V,.

L. Vein V 3 of both fore and hind wings
coalescing with vein VIIi for a considerable
distance beyond the end of the discal cell

(Fig. 309). p. 262 DIOPTID^E.

LL. Veins V 3 and VII) not coalescing beyond
the end of the discal cell.
M. Veins III 2 and III 3 coalesced at base,
but separate from veins III 4 and III 6 .

15

210 THE STUDY Of INSECTS.

which also coalesce (Fig. 438). p. 357.

LACOSOMIDiE.

MM. Veins III,. Ills, III*, and III 5 united
at base (Fig. 419). p. 340. .BoMBYCiD^E.
KK. Vein V a of the fore wings emerging from
the discal cell nearer to cubitus than to radius,
causing cubitus to appear four-branched.
L. Fore wings with an accessory cell (Fig. 255)
veins Ilia and Ills coalesced at base, also
ve : ns III* and Ills; the accessory cell is
formed by the anastomosing of veins Ills

and Ilh + s. p. 221 CossiD^E.

LL. Fore wings without an accessory cell;
veins III 3 and III* coalescing to a greater
extent than any other branches of radius

(Fig. 26 1 ,. p. 223 ... EUCLEID^E.

FF. Hind wings with less than three anal veins.
G. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins or with the
anal veins partially grown together in such a way as
to appear as a single branched vein.
H. Anal veins of fore wings partially grown together
so as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253). p. 219

PSYCHID^E.

HH. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins, p. 226.

PYROMORPHID/E.

GG. Fore wings with a single fully preserved anal vein.
This is the second anal vein (vein IX) ; the first anal
vein (vein VIII) is absent or represented merely by a
fold; and the third anal vein (vein XI) is short, not
reaching to the margin of the wing, or is wanting;
usually when the third anal vein is present it is joined
to the second anal vein, so that the latter appears to
be forked towards the base.

H. Frenulum present. In most cases the humeral
angle of the hind wings is not largely expanded.
I. The five branches of radius and the three branches
of media of the fore wings present, and each one
arising from the discal cell (Fig. 404). Small
nioths (the largest expanding only three fourths
inch) resembling Hawk-moths in form, and with
translucent spots on their wings, p. 328.

LEPIDOP TERA . 211

II. Some of the branches of radius or of media
either wanting or grown together beyond the
discal cell.

J. Hind wings with subcosta and radius appar-
ently distinct but connected by a strong oblique
cross vein (Fig. 407). Moths of medium or
large size, with spindle-shaped bodies, narrow,
strong wings, and usually with the antennae
prismatic in form, and more or less thickened
in the middle or towards the tip, which is fre-
quently recurved in the form of a hook (Hawk-
moths), p. 329 SPHINGID/E.

JJ. Subcosta and radius of hind wings either dis-
tinct or grown together; but not appearing to
be connected by a strong, oblique cross vein.
K. Vein V s of the fore wings not more c.^sely
joined to cubitus than to radius, cubitus being
apparently three-branched.
L. The basal part of the subcosta of the hind
wings extending from the base towards the
apex of the wing in a regular curve. Moths
resembling Noctuids in form ; i.e., with a
large abdomen and with rather narrow,
strong, and coarsely-scaled fore wings.
M. Vein V a of the hind wings arising much
nearer to cubitus than to radius; vein Vi
of the hind wings joined to radius at a
considerable distance before the apex of
the discal cell (Fig. 349). p. 291.

CYMATOPHORID^E.

MM Vein V of the hind wings either
wanting or present, but when present
arising either midway between radius
and cubitus, or nearer to radius than to
cubitus ; vein Vi of the hind wings joined
to radius at or beyond the apex of the
discal cell (Fig 311). p. 263.

NOTODONTIDJE.

LL. The basal part of the subcosta of the
hind wings joined to radius for a consider-
able distance and then making a prominent
bend towards the costal margin, as in Cicin-

212 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

ttus (Fig. 438). Veins Ills and III* oi the
fore wings separate from each other, p. 357.

[See also LLL.] LACOSOMID^E.

LLL. The basal part of the subcosta of the
hind wings making a prominent bend into
the humeral angle of the wing (Fig. 327);
veins Ills and III 4 coalesced to near the
apex of the wing. In most cases, moths
with a slender abdomen, and with rather
broad, delicate wings, which are finely

scaled, p. 270 GEOMETRINA.

KK. Vein V 3 of the fore wings more closely
joined to cubitus than to radius ; cubitus be-
ing in most cases apparently four-branched.
L. Small moths with the apex of the fore
wings sickle-shaped, p. 289. . DREPANID^E.
LL. Apex of the fore wings not sickle-shaped.
M. Small moths with snow-white wings, in
which the subcosta of the hind wings ex-
tends distinct from radius to a point be-
yond the discal cell where the two are
united for a greater or less distance (Fig.

344). p. 288 AUZATID^E.

MM. The subcosta of the hind wings ex-
tending distinct from the radius, or the
two joined for a very short distance, near
the base of the wing. [See also MMM.J
N. Chiefly day-flying moths that are
either black with large, white or yellow,
rounded patches upon the wings, or
have the front wings white, margined
with brown, and the hind wings pale
yellow^

O. Cubitus of hind wings apparently
four-branched (Fig. 384). p. 316

PERICOPID^;.

OO. Cubitus of hind wings apparently
three-branched (Fig. 379). p. 313.

AGARISTID^E.

NN. Not such moths as are described
under N.
O. Antennae pectinate.

LEPIDOP TERA. 213

P. Ocelli absent, p. 308.

LYMANTRIIDjE.

PP. Ocelli present, p. 293 NOCTUID^E.

OO. Antennae simple, p. 293. NocxuiDvE.

MMM. The subcosta of the hind wings

united with the radius for a considerable

distance (i.e., for one fifth or more of the

length of the discal cell).

N. The subcosta and radius of the hind
wings united for a considerable distance,
but usually separating before the apex
of the discal cell.

O. Ocelli present, p. 317. ..ARCTIIDJE.
OO. Ocelli absent, p. 324..LlTHOSHD^E.

NN. The subcosta and radius of the hind
wings united into a single vein (Fig.
399), or at most with their tips separate
near the apex of the vving. With all
the moths included under this head
and under the preceding N, vein V (
of the hind wings is present and is
joined to radius at or near the apex of
the discal cell ; care should be taken
not to mistake this vein Vi for radius,

p. 326 Z YG^ENIDvE.

HH. Frenulum absent; the humeral angle of the hind
wings largely expanded and serving as a substitute
for a frenulum.

I. Cubitus of both wings apparently four-branched,
due to the fact that both the second and third
branches of media (V 2 and V 3 ) are joined to it.

J. Small moths, with slender bodies, and with the
apex of the fore wings sickle-shaped ; humeral
veins absent, p. 289. DRSPANI^/E.

JJ. Moths of various sizes, but with robust bodies!
and with the apex of the fore wings not sickle-
shaped ; hind wings with humeral veins, p.
359 LASIOCAMPID^E.

II. Cubitus of both fore and hind wings apparently
three-branched, due to the fact that only the third
branch of media (V 3 ) is more closely joined to it
than to radius. (The moths included in this

214

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

section of this table are robust, with strong wings,
and are of medium or large size. In some of the
Geometrina (p. 270), which also have a three-
branched cubitus, the frenulum is inconspicuous
or even in rare cases (Dyspteris) wanting ; these
moths can be distinguished from those included
here by their smaller size, more slender body, and

weaker wings), p. 339 SATURNIINA.

BB. Antennae thread-like with a knob at the extremity.

C. With the radius of the fore wings five-branched, and with all
of the branches arising from the discal cell (Fig. 445) ; club of
antennae usually terminated by a recurved hook. The Skip-
pers, p. 364 HESPERIINA.

CC. With some of the branches of the radius of the fore wings
coalesced beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 455) ; club of
antennae not terminated by a recurved hook. The Butterflies.
p. 373 PAPILIONINA.

Suborder JlIGATVE (Ju-ga'tae).
The jugate (Ju'gate) Lepidoptera.

The American representatives of this suborder are rare
moths, which the student beginning the study of insects is
not likely to meet. They can be easily recognized by the
peculiar structure of the hind wings, which resemble the

fore wings in form and in
venation (Fig. 238). In all
other Lepidoptera, the two

ni s pairs of

wings differ

in

form, and the hind wings
are furnished with fewer
than are the fore

veins

wings.

The most important
characteristic of the sub-
order, and the one to which

its name refers, is the way
in which the two wings of each side are fastened together.
There projects backward from the inner margin of the fore

V1L VIIi.
FIG. Z43. Wings of Hefialus gracilis.

LEPID OP TERA . 215

wing near its base a small lobe (Fig. 243, y), which extends
under the costal margin of the hind wing; while the greater
part of the inner margin of the fore wing overlaps the hind
wing. This arrangement assures the acting together of the
two wings.

This projecting lobe is named thejttgum or yoke ; and the
moths possessing this organ are termed the Jugatae or the
Jugate Lepidoptera.

This suborder includes only two families; one represented
by minute moths, the other by moths of medium or large
size.

Family HEPIALID.E (He-pi-ari-dae).
The Sivifts.

The members of this family are of medium or large size.
Figure 244 represents one of the larger species. Our best

FIG. 244. Hepialus argenteomaculatus.

known forms are brown or ashy gray in color, with the wings
marked with silvery white spots.

It is said that these moths fly near the earth, and only in
the evening after sunset, hiding under some low plant, or
clinging to the stalk of an herb during the day. Some of
them fly with extreme rapidity, with an irregular mazy flight,
and have, therefore, been named Swifts by collectors. They
are attracted to lights. Figure 238 represents the venation
of the wings of Hepialus (He-pi'a-lus).

2l6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The larvae are nearly naked, and grub-like in appearance,
although furnished with sixteen legs. They feed upon
wood, and are found at the roots or within the stems of plants.
They transform either in their burrows, or, in the case of
those that feed outside of roots, within loose cocoons. The
pupae have transverse rows of teeth on the abdominal seg-
ments ; these aid them in emerging from their burrows.
The best known American species bores in the stems of the
speckled or hoary alder (Alnus incand).

Family MlCROPTERYGlD^; (Mi-crop-te-ryg'i-dae).
The Little-winged Jugates (Ju' gates).

These are very minute moths, which resemble Tineids in
size and appearance. The largest species known to the
writer expands but little more than half an inch. Figure 245
represents the venation of the wings. Only a single genus,

III, TTT

*

II

III.,

nr

VIII VII 2 viI r V 3

. Winys uf Mii.ropteryx.

in

.

this country. The

FIG. 245. Winys uf Mii.ro

Microptcryx (Mi-crop'te-ryx), occurs
larvae are leaf-miners.

Suborder FRENAT/E (Fre-na'tae).
The Frenate (Fre'nate) Lcpidoptera.

To the Frenatas belong nearly all of our moths, and all
skippers and butterflies. With most moths of this suborder

LEPJDOP TERA . 2 1 7

tnere exists near the base of the costal margin of the hind
wings a strong bristle or bunch of bristles named the frenu-
lum, or little bridle (Fig. 237, /). As the frenulum projects
forward under the fore wing it tends to depress the hind
wing when the fore wing is depressed, thus insuring the act-
ing together of the two pairs of wings. Usually the frenulum
consists of two or more bristles in females and of a single
stronger bristle in males. The difference is due to the fact
that in males the bunch of bristles have grown together into
". single strong bristle. There is also another sexual differ-
ence. In the males the tip of the frenulum fits into a mem-
branous hook borne on the lower surface of the fore wing,
thus firmly tying together the two wings (Fig. 237, f.h\
This frenulum hook is rarely found in females. In certain
moths there is, besides the frenulum hook, a tuft of hairs
projecting forwards from just behind the cubitus of the fore
wing near its base, which tends also to keep the frenulum in
place.

With some moths and with all skippers and all butterflies
the base of the costal portion of the hind wings, the humeral
angle as it is termed, is largely developed, so that it projects
far under the fore wing (Fig. 241). This overlapping of the
two wings at the base to so great an extent insures their act-
ing together without the aid of the frenulum ; and, conse-
quently, there being no use for a frenulum, this organ has
disappeared. In other words, the frenulum has been super-
seded by the large development of the humeral angle. But
as we believe that these moths, skippers, and butterflies have
descended from forms which had a frenulum, we class them
with the moths that still possess this organ under the sub-
order Frenatae.

A more easily observed character which serves to distin-
guish members of this suborder is a striking difference in
the venation of the two pairs of wings, the hind wings hav-
ing fewer veins than the fore wings.

2l8

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family MEGALOPYGID^E (Me-gal-o-pyg'i-dae).
7 he Flannel-wot /is.

Sometimes there is attracted to our evening lamp a
whitish moth, whose wings, being densely clothed with long
curly hairs, resemble bits of flannel; this is the Crinkled

Flannel-moth, Megalopyge cris-
pata (Me-gal-o-py'ge cris-pa ta).
It is cream-colored, with the fore
wings marked with wavy lines of
crinkled black and brownish hairs.
The male is represented by Fig-
ure 246 ; the female is larger,
expanding one and three fifths

FIG. 246. Megaiopyge

inches. In the female the antennae are very narrowly pecti-
nate. The larva is said to feed on oak, elm, apple, and rasp-
berry.

In the Southern States there occur three other species
of this family. These
moths are easily distin-
guished by the structure
of their wings (Fig. 247).
There are three anal
veins in both fore and
hind wings ; bu-t in the
fore wings the second
and third anal veins (veins
IX and XI) are partially
grown together. The
basal part of vein V is
more or less distinctly
preserved, and divides
the discal cell into two
nearly equal parts. Veins
II and III of the hind
wings are grown to-
gether nearly to the end of the discal cell.

VII,

XI

VII;

IX VIII
FIG. 247. Wings of Megalopyge crispata.

LEPIDOPTERA.

219

The larvae of the Flannel-moths are remarkable for the
possession of ten pairs of legs,
three thoracic and seven abdomi-
nal. All other known lepidopter-
ous larvae, except perhaps those
of Micropteryx, have lost some of
the abdominal legs. The cocoons
of these insects are also remark- FIG. 24 8. Cocoon of
able, being furnished with a trap-door (Fig. 248).

Family PSYCHID.E (Psy'chi-dae).
The Bag-worm Moths.

The Bag-worms are those caterpillars that have the curi-
ous habit of building each for itself a silken sac covered
with little twigs within which it lives (Figs.
249 and 250). When the caterpillar wishes
to move from one place to another it pushes
forth the front end of its body and creeps
along, carrying its house with it. It is said
that the species that inhabit Ceylon are be-
lieved by the natives to be composed of
individuals who in a previous incarnation
were human beings and stole kindling-wood,
and who now atone for the theft by repeat-

ing the act as an insect.

FIG. 249. Bag of
Oikfticus abbotii.

When a Bag-worm is fully grown, it
fastens its sac to a twig and changes to a
pupa within it. And here the females remain until death,
leaving their eggs within their
sacs. These females are grub-

like creatures
But the male
way out from

wings.

without

pupa works his

the lower end

'fS*'

F '

rata.

FIG. 251. Psyche
confedcrata.

of his sac and changes to a
winged moth. Figure 250 rep-
resents the sac of a male with the empty pupa-skin projecting

220

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FlG. ziyi

from the lower end, and Figure 251 the fully developed

male. These figures are of one of our smaller species,

which belong to the genus Psyche (Psy'che).

Abbot's Bag-worm, Oiketicus abbotii (Oi-ket'i-cus ab-

bot'i-i). This species occurs in the more southern part of

our country. The larva makes a bag with sticks attached

to it crosswise (Fig. 249).

T'ie Evergreen Bag-worm, TJiyridopteryx ephenieratfor-
mis (Thyr-i-dop'te-ryx e-phem-e-me-for'-
mis). This is our best known species,
and on this account has been commonly
called The Bag-worm. But as it is desir-
able to have different names for the dif-
ferent species, we call this one the Ever-
green Bag-worm ; for although it feeds on

many different trees, it prefers red cedar and arbor vitae. The

bag of this species

is about the same size

as that of Abbot's

Bag-worm; but it dif-
fers in being covered ~ ,~

with bits of leaves of '

cedar or arbor vitae, or

with twigs attached

lengthwise.

The structure of

the wings of the Psy-

chidae is very char-
acteristic (Fig. 253).

Both the fore and

the hind wings may

have either tWO Or FlG - 2 S3- Wings of rhyridopteryx ephemeraformis.

three anal veins ; but the anal veins of the
fore wings are grown together so as to ap-
pear as a single much-branched vein. The
base of vein V is preserved and is forked

FIG. 254.

LEPIDOPTERA.

221

within the discal cell. In the hind wings, veins I and II
and veins II and III are grown together in an unusual
way. In Figure 254 these veins are represented slightly
separated in order to show their relation to each other.

Family COSSID^E (Cos'si-dae).
The Carpenter-mot '/is.

This family includes moths with spindle-shaped bodies,
and narrow, strong wings, some of the species resembling
Hawk-moths quite closely in this respect. The larvae are
wood-borers, living in the solid wood of the trunks of trees.
They are often very injurious to forest or shade trees, and
one recently imported species is very injurious to pear trees.
The wood-boring habits of the larvae suggest the popular
name Carpenter-moths for the insects of this family.

These moths fly by night, and lay their eggs on the bark

vn,

VII a
XI IX V '

FIG. 255. Wings of Prionoxy*tus robinice , /", frenulum, enlarged.

of trees, or within tunnels in trees from which adult Car-
penter-moths have emerged. The caterpillars are nearly
naked, and, although furnished with pro-legs as well as true
legs, are grub-like in form. The pupa state is passed within

222

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the burrow made by the larva. When ready to change to
an adult, the pupa works its way partially out from its bur-
row. This is accomplished by means of backward-project-
ing, saw-like teeth, there being one or two rows of these on
each abdominal segment. After the moths have emerged
the empty pupa-skins can be found projecting from the
deserted burrows.

The Carpenter-moths are of medium or large size. Our
more common species are of a pepper-and-salt color, due to
strongly contrasting dark and light scales. The antenna::
are usually pectinate in both sexes, but in some species those
of the female are simple ; the ocelli are wanting ; and the
mouth-parts are obsolete.

The structure of the wings is shown in Figure 255
There are two anal veins in the fore wing, and three in the
hind wings. The base of vein V is preserved, and is forked
within the discal cell. In the fore wings, the branches of
vein III anastomose so as to form an accessory cell. The
frenulum is rudimentary in most of our genera (Fig. 255),
but is strongly developed in others.

Our most common species is the Locust-tree Carpenter-

. 256. Prionoxystus robinia.

moth, Prionoxystus robinice (Pri-on-ox-ys'tus ro-bin'i-ae).
Figure 256 represents the female natural size. The male is
but little more than half as large as the female. It is much

LEPIDOPTERA.

223

darker than the female, from which it differs also in having
a large yellow spot, which nearly covers the outer half of the
hind wings. This species flies in June and July. As sug-
gested by its name, it infests locust ; but its larva also bores
in the trunks of oak, poplar, willow, and other trees. It
is supposed that the species requires three years to com-
plete its transformations.

The Leopard-moth, Zeuzera pyrina (Zeu-ze'ra py-ri'na)
is a large European species which has become common in
the vicinity of New York City, and will doubtless spread to
other parts of the country. It is white, spotted with numer-
ous small black spots. Its larva is very injurious, especially
to maple. It infests other shade trees, and also apple and
pear.

Family ElJCLElDyE (Eu-cle'i-dae).

The Slug-caterpillar Moths.

One often finds on the leaves of shrubs or trees elliptica)
or oval larvae that resemble slugs in the form of the body
and in their gliding motion. As these are larvae of moths
they have been termed Slug-caterpillars ; but they present
very little similarity in form to other caterpillars. The re-
semblance to slugs is greatly increased by the fact that the

FIG. 257 Larva of Eulimacodes scapha. FIG. 258. Euclta delphinii, larva. FIG. 259.

lower surface of the body is closely applied to the object
upon which the larva is creeping, the pro-legs being replaced
by mere swellings on the abdominal segments. Some
species are naked (Fig. 257); but many of them are armed

224

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

with branching spines (Fig. 258). The larvae when full
grown spin very dense cocoons of brown silk ; these are
egg-shaped or nearly spherical (Fig. 259), and are usually
spun between leaves.

The moths are of medium or small size ; they vary

greatly in appearance,
3+4 and many of them ?.:
very prettily colored.

Considerable variation
exists in the venation of
the wings in this family
(Figs. 260, 261). The
base of vein V may be
preserved or wanting. In
some species it is forked
within the discal cell, in
others not. There is also
considerable variation in
the coalescence of the
branches of radius, but
veins III 3 and III 4 co-
alesce to a greater ex-
tent than any other
branches of this vein, and there is no accessory cell.

The Skiff Caterpillar, Euliniacodes scapJia (Eu-lim-a-co'des
sca'pha). This remarkable larva (Fig. 257) is not uncommon
on oak and other forest trees. It is pale apple-green, with a
chestnut-brown patch on its back. The moth (Fig. 262) is
light cinnamon-brown, with a tan-brown triangular spot on
each fore wing.

The Spiny Oak-slug, Euclea delphinii (Eu'cle-a del-
phin'i-i). This larva (Fig. 258) is one of the most common
of our slug-caterpillars. It feeds on the leaves of oak,
pear, willow, and other trees. The moth is cinnamon-
brown, with a variable number of bright green spots on the
fore wings (Fig. 263).

VII,

VIII

FIG. 260. Wings of Adoneta. spinuloides.

LEPIDOPTERA.

225

The Saddle-back Caterpillar, Evipretia stimulea (Em-
pre'ti-a sti-mu'le-a). This larva can be recognized by Fig-
ure 264. Its most characteristic feature is a large green

v.

XI

vn,

VI I?

IX VIII

FIG. 261. Wings of Packardia geminata.

patch on the back, resembling a saddle-cloth, while the
saddle is represented by an oval purplish-brown spot. The
moth is dark, velvety, reddish brown, with two golden dots

FlG. 262. Eulimacodes scapha. FlGC 263. Euciea delpkinii.

FIG. 264. Emfiretia
stimulea, larva.

near the apex of the fore wings. The larva feeds on oak
and other forest trees. The prick of its spines is said to be
venomous.
16

226

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

Family PYKOMORPHID^E (Pyr-o-mor'phi-dae).
Tke Smoky-moths.

There are but few insects in our country pertaining to
this family. These are small moths, that are
chiefly of a smoky black color ; some are
marked with brighter colors.

A tiny representative of the family which
seems to be not uncommon in the East is Acoloitlms fal-
sanns (Ac-o-loi'thus fal-sa'ri-us). This moth (Fig. 265)
expands two thirds of an inch. It is black, with the pro-
thorax of an orange color. The venation of its wings (Fig.
266) is peculiar in that subcosta and radius of the hind wings
coalesce for only a short

, -

III 5

V,

FlG. ?(><:,. A coloi-
tints falsarins.

II

XI

VII 2

vu,

distance beyond the mid-
dle of the discal cell, and
a stump of radius pro-
jects towards the base
of the wing, from the
point of union of the two
veins. The larva feeds
in early summer on the
leaves of grape and of
the Virginia creeper. It
is said that the pupa
state lasts fourteen days
and is passed within a parchment-like cocoon. The adult
frequents flowers in the daytime.

The typical genus of the family is represented in the At-
lantic and Western States by Pyromorpha dimidiata (Pyr-o-
mor'pha di-mid-i-a'ta). The entire insect is smoky black,
except the basal half of the fore wings in front of vein IX,
and the basal half of the costa of the hind wings, which are
yellow. The wings are thinly scaled, and expand a little
more than one inch. Figure 267 represents the venation of
the wings.

IX VIII
FIG. 266. Wings of Acoloithus fulsarius.

LEPIDOPTERA.

227

in.

In Texas and Arizona there occur several species of
Triprocris (Trip'ro-cris). The venation of one of them is
shown in Figure 268. (r tir,

It is remarkable in that
none of the branches of
radius of the fore wings
coalesce beyond the dis-
cal cell.

The genus Harrisina
(Har-ris'i-na) seems to
be closely allied to the
preceding and is placed
in this family provision-
ally. It differs, how-
ever, from the typical 1
form of the family in

that the anal area Of FIG. 267. Wings of Pyromorpha dimidiate.

the hind wings is greatly reduced, there being only two,
short, strongly curved anal veins. As in the other members

of the family there are
two, well-developed anal
in the

VJIJ

VII

VII,

Til

1 4

m i veins preserved
Vi fore wings.

In the East the most
common species is Har-
risina americana (H.
a-mer-i-ca'na) (Fig. 269).

au

FIG. 268. Wings of Triprocris marteni.

FIG. 269. Harrisina americana.

The wings are long and narrow ; the abdomen is long and
widened towards the caudal end. It is greenish black in
color, with the prothorax reddish orange. The larva feeds

228

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

on the leaves of grape and of the Virginia creeper. An
entire brood of these larvae will feed side by side on a
single leaf while young.

Harrisina texana (H. tex-a'na) occurs in the Southwest.
It closely resembles the preceding; but is bluish black
with a reddish orange prothorax. Harrisina coracina (H.
cor-a-ci'na) also occurs in the Southwest. This species is
entirely black.

Superfamily PYRALIDINA (Pyr-a-li-di'na).
The Pyralids (Pyr'a-lids).

This superfamily includes moths of medium or small
size ; but so large a proportion of the species are small that
the superfamily is commonly classed with the two following
as Microlepidoptera.

The members of the different families included in this
superfamily differ so greatly in appearance that it is not

possible to give a gen-
eral description that
will serve to distinguish
it. It is necessary to
study structural char-
acters to find evidences
of a common bond, and
here as in other groups
we find the structure of
the wings most useful
for this purpose.

As a rule there are
FIG. 270. wings of Nomophiia noctueiia. three anal veins in the

hind wings and two in the fore wings. In this respect this
superfamily agrees with the preceding families and with the
two following superfamilies. But in most cases the Pyralids
can be recognized by the fact that the subcosta and radius of
the hind wings are separate along the discal cell, but grown

LEPIDOPTERA.

229

FIG. 271. Wings of Tlascala reductella.

together for a short distance beyond the cell, after which
they are again separate
(Fig 270). In some gen-
era these two veins do
not actually coalesce, but
extend very near to-
gether for a short dis-
tance (Fig. 271). The
two types, however, are
essentially the same.

This superfamily in-
cludes seven families,
which can be separated
by the table given below.
The Plume -moths are
placed last in the series,
as we believe that they
depart more widely from the primitive type than do any
of the other families.

A. Wings not fissured.

B. Hind wings without a fringe of hairs on the basal part of vein
VII. Care must be taken not to mistake scattered hairs on the
anal area of the wing for such a fringe.
C. Fore wings with veins 1114 and Ills separate, vein III 5 arising

from the discal cell (Fig. 272). p. 230 PYRAUSTID/E.

CC. Fore wings with veins Ilh and I1I 5 united at base (Fig. 277).

p. 232 PYRALJDID^.

BB. Hind wings with a fringe of long hairs on the- basal part of
ve : r VII.
C. Radius of fore wings five- branched.

D. Maxillary palpi more or less developed, but not triangular

as in the next family, p. 233 GALLERIID^.

DD. Labial palpi long, straight, projecting forward ; maxillary
palpi well developed, strongly dilated at tip with scales, ap-
pearing triangular when viewed from the side. p. 234.

CRAMBID^E.

CC. Radius of fore wings four-branched, veins III a and III
coalescing to edge of wing (Fig. 281). p. 235 ... . FHYCITID^E.

230

THE STUDV OF IX SECTS.

AA. Wings fissured.

B Wings with less than five fissures; usually the fore wings have

one fissure and the hind wings two. p. 237. . . . PTEROPHORID^.

BB. Each wing split into six parts, p. 238 ORNEODID^E.

Family PYRAUSTID.E (Py-raus'ti-dse).

The Pyraustids (Py-r aits' t ids}.

The members of this family differ from other Pyralids by
the following combination of characters. There is no fringe

o t>

of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind

wings, and vein III 6 of

nr * 3 nr

" ^^ the fore wings arises

from the discal cell dis-
tinct from vein 1 1 1 4 (Fig.
272). This family in-
cludes many small
moths; but it contains
also the majority of the
larger species of Pyra-
lids. Some of the species
are very striking in ap-
pearance.

FIG. 272. Wings of Nontophila noctuelia. The GraDC Leaf

folder, Desmia fnneralis (Des'mi-a fu-ne-ra'lis) is a common
species, the larva of which feeds on the leaves of grape.
The larva folds' the leaf by fastening two portions together
by silken threads. When full grown,
changes to a pupa within the folded leaf.
The moth is black with shining white spots.
The male (Fig. 273) differs from the fe-
male in having a knot-like enlargement near
the middle of each antenna. There is some variation in
the size and shape of the white spots on the wings. In
some specimens the white spot of the hind wing is sepa-
rated into two or three spots.

VII,

VII,

VIII

FlG. 273 Desinia
Jttneralis.

LEPIDOPl^ERA.

231

The Bass-wood Leaf-roller, Pantographa liniata (Pan-
tog'ra-pha Ji-ma'ta). Our bass-wood trees often present a

strange ap-
pearance
from the fact
that nearly
every leaf is
cut more than
half way
across the
middle, and
the end rolled
into a tube

(Fig. 274). Within this tube
there lives a bright green larva,
with the head and thoracic shield
black. This larva resembles cer-

at a.

FlG. 275. Pantographa limata,

tain Tortricid larvae, both in ap-
pearance and habits ; but a study
of the adult shows it to be a Py-
ra ii c ] < The moth expands about
one and one half inches; it is
straw-colored, with many elaborate markings of olive with
a purplish iridescence (Fig. 275). There is one brood a
year ; the winter is passed in the larval state.

The Melon-worm, Margaronia Jiyalinata (Mar-ga-ro'ni-a
hy-a-li-na'ta). This beautiful moth (Fig. 276) is often a
serious pest in our southern states, where the larva is very

232

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

destructive to melons and other allied plants, destroying
both the foliage and the fruit. The moth is a superb

FIG. 2i6.Margaronia hyalinata, larvae, cocoon, and adults. (From the Author's

Report for 1879.)

creature, with glistening white wings bordered with black,
and with a spreading brush of long scales at the end of
the abdomen.

Family PYRALIDID.E (Pyr-a-lid'i-dae).
The Typical Pyralids (Pyr' a-lids].

The moths of this family are distinguished from other Pyr-
alids, except the next family, by the absence of a fringe of
hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings; and
they are distinguished from that family by the fact that veins
III 4 and III 6 of the fore wings are united at base (Fig. 277).
It is one of the smaller of the families of Pyralids; fifty-four
species are now enumerated in our lists.

LEPIDOPl^ERA.

233

The Meal-moth, Pyralis farinalis (Pyr'a-lis far-i-na'lis) is
a common species.

The larva feeds on ILt

meal, flour, and old
clover-hay. The moth
is commonly found
near the food of the
larva, but is often
seen on the ceilings

of rooms sitting with

its tail curved over

its back. It expands

about an inch ; the

fore wings are light

brown, crossed by

two curved white

lines, and with a dark

chocolate-brown spot

on the base and tip

of each.

The Clover-hay Worm, Pyralis cost alts (Pyr'a-lis cos-ta'-

lis). The larva of this species sometimes abounds in old
stacks of clover-hay, and especially near the
bottom of such stacks. As the infested hay be-
comes covered with a silken web spun by the
larva, and by its black gunpowder-like excre-
ment, much more is spoiled than is eaten by
The moth expands about four fifths of an inch.

It is of a beautiful lilac color, with golden bands and fringes

(Fig. 278).

Family GALLERIID^E (Gal-le-ri'i-das).
Tlie Bee-mot Ji Family.

This is a small family, of which only seven species have
been found in our fauna. The best known of these is the
Bee-moth, Galleria mellonella (Gal-le'ri-a mel-lo-ncl'la). The

VIII

FlG. 277. Wings of Pyralis farinalis.

FIG. 278.

costalis.

the insect.

234

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FIG.

mello-

nella .

larva of this species is a well-known pest in apiaries, it
feeds upon wax; and makes silk-lined galleries in the honey-
comb, thus destroying it. When full grown the larva
is about an inch in length. It lies hidden in its gallery dur-
ing the day, and feeds only at night, when the tired-out bees
are sleeping the sleep of the just. When ready to pupate
the caterpillar spins a tough cocoon against the side of the
hive.

The moth has purplish-brown front wings, and brown or
faded yellow hind wings. The fore wings of the male are

deeply notched at the end, while those
of the female (Fig. 279) are but slightly
so. The female moth creeps into the
hive at night to lay her eggs.

This pest is found most o'ften in weak
colonies of bees, which it frequently
destroys. The best preventive of its
injuries is to keep the colonies of bees strong. Of course
the moths and larvae should be destroyed whenever found.
But the moths are slippery like other expert thieves, and
run so rapidly when disturbed that it is very
difficult to catch them.

Family CRAMBID^ (Cram'bi-dae).

The Close-wings.

Although this is not a large family, there
being only seventy-five species known in our
fauna, the members of it are more often seen
than any other Pyralids. The larvae of most
of the species feed on grass; and the adults
fly up before us whenever we walk through
meadows or pastures. When at rest, the moths
wrap their wings closely about the body ; this
has suggested the name Close-wings for the ,

FlG. 280 Cram

insects of this family. When one of these l "' li -

moths alights on a stalk of grass it quickly places its body

LEriDOPTERA.

235

infills 1113*4

parallel with the stalk, which renders it less conspicuous
(Fig. 280). Many of the species are silvery white or are
marked with stripes of that color.

More than fifty of our species belong to the genus Cram-
bus (Cram'bus). The moths of this genus are often seen;
but the larvae usually escape observation. They occur
chiefly near the surface of the ground, where they live in
tubular nests constructed of bits of earth or vegetable
matter.

Family PHYCITID^; (Phy-cit'i-dae).
The Pkycitids (P/iyc'i-tids).

Our most common members of this family are small
moths with rather narrow but long fore wings, which are
banded or mottled with
various shades of gray
or brown. The family
is, however, a large one
and other types of col-
oration occur. The dis-
tinctive characteristics
are those given in the
table above. Figure 281
represents the venation
of the wings.

The larvae of the dif-
erent species vary greatly
in habits. Some live in
flowers, some fold or roll

1 -. i i i , i FIG. 281 Wings of Tlascala reductella.

leaves within which they

live and feed; some are borers; others feed upon dried

fruits, or flour and meal ; and one, at least, is preda-

ceous, feeding on coccids. Usually the larva lives in ;i

silken tube or case, lying concealed by day and feeding by

night.

XI

vui

236 THE STUDY OF INSECTS

The case made by certain of the leaf-eating species is
very characteristic in form (Fig. 282), being strongly taper-
ing and much curved ; in this instance the
case is composed largely of the excrement of
the larva.

The Indian-meal Moth, Plodia interpnnc-
tella (Plo'di-a in-ter-punc-tel'la) is the best
known of the species that infest stored
provisions. The larva is the small whitish
worm, with a brownish -yellow head, that
spins thin silken tubes through meal or among
yeast-cakes, or in bags or boxes of dried fruits. The moth
expands about five eighths of an inch. The basal two fifths
of the fore wing is dull white or cream-colored ; the outer
part reddish brown, with irregular bands of blackish scales.

The Mediterranean Flour -moth, EpJiestia kiiJiniclla
(E-phes'ti-a kiihn-i-el'la), is an even more serious pest than
the preceding species, which it resembles in habits. It has
become very troublesome in recent years in flouring-mills.
The moth expands about one inch, and is grayish in color.
Although it is called the Mediterranean Flour-moth, its
source is not definitely known. Nor do we know of any
easy way of ridding an infested mill of it. Carbon bisul-
phide is perhaps the most available insecticide in this
case.

Zimmermann's Pine-pest, Pinipcstis zimmermanni (Pin-i-
pes'tis zim-mer-man'ni), is a common species, the larva of
which is a borer. It infests the trunks of pine, causing large
masses of gum to exude. The moths appear in mid-
summer.

The Coccid-eating Pyralid, Lcetilia coccidivora (Lae-til'i-a
coc-ci-div'o-ra), differs from the other members of this
family in being predaceous. It feeds on the eggs and
young of various scale-insects (Pulvinaria, Dactylopius, and
Lecaniuni). Figure 283 represents the different stages of
this insect enlarged, and the moths natural size resting- on

LEPIDOPTERA.

237

egg-sacs of Pulvinaria. Like other members of this family
the larva spins a silken tube, within which it lives. On a

FIG. 283.- Latilia coccieih'ora ; a, egg; , larva ; c, pupa; d, adult; e, e, moths natural
size resting on egg-sacs of Puhiinaria.

thickly infested branch these tubes may be found extending
from the remains of one coccid to another.

Family Pterophoridae (Pter-o-phor'i-dae).

The Plume-moths.

The Plume -moths are so called on account of the
remarkable form of the wings, which are split by longitu-

238

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

dinal fissures into more or less plume-like divisions. In
most species the fore wing is separated into two parts, by
a fissure extending about one half the length of the wing;
while the hind wing is divided into three parts by fissure?,
extending farther towards the base of the wing. Sixty
species belonging to the family have been found in North
America.

One of our most common species is the Gartered Plume,
Oxyptilus periscelidactylns(Q^-j^'\\\\\^ per-is-cel-i-dac'ty-lus).
This is a small moth, expanding about seven
tenths of an inch. It is of a yellowish brown
color marked with dull whitish streaks and
spots (Fig. 284). The larvae hatch early in the
FIG. 284 -oxyftiius s P rm g an ^ feed upon the newly-expanded

frriscelidactyl. \^ VQ?> Q f grape> They f asten together

several of them, usually those at the end of a shoot, with
fine white silk; between the leaves thus folded the cater-
pillars live either singly or two or three together. They
become full grown and change to pupae early in June.
The pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon, but is fastened to
the lower side of a leaf by its tail by means of a few silken
threads, in nearly the same way that the chrysalids of certain
butterflies are suspended. The pupa state lasts about eight
days.

Family ORNEODID^; (Or-ne-od'i-dae).
The Many-plume Moths.

These insects resemble the Plume
Moths in having the wings fissured ;
but here the fissuring is carried to a
much greater extent than in that fam-
ily, each wing being divided into six
plumes (Fig. 285).

As yet only a single species of this
family has been found in North Amer-
ica. This is Orneodes hexadactyla (Or-
ne-o'des hex-a-dac'ty-la).

FlG. 2&5.

hexadactyla.

LEPIDOPTERA.

239

in, in,

Superfamily TORTRICINA (Tor-tri-ci'na).
The Tortricids (Tor' tri-cids).

The Tortricids are generally small moths ; but as a rule
they are larger than the Tineids. They have broad front
wings, which usually end squarely. The costa
of the front wing curves forward strongly
near the base of the wing. When at rest the
broad front wings fold above the body like a
roof. The moths are variegated in color, but
are usually brown, gray, or golden rather than
of brighter hues. As a rule the hind wings
are of the color of the body and without
markings. In the venation of the wings they
differ from the Pyralids in having subcosta
and radius of the hind wings widely separate
beyond the end of the discal cell ; and from
the Tineids in having the second anal vein
of the hind wings forked towards the base
(Fig. 286).

T h e larvae
vary greatly in
habits ; but a
large proportion
of them are leaf-
rollers (Fig. 287).
It was this habit
that suggested
the name Tor-
trix (Tor'trix)
for the typical
genus, from

which the names of one family and of the
superfamily are derived. A large proportion of the rolled
leaves found upon shrubs and trees are homes of Tortricid
larvae. But it should be remembered that the leaf-rolling
habit is net confined to this family.

FIG. 286. Wings of Cacoecia
cernsivorana.

FIG. 287. Leaf
rolled by a
larva, probably
a Tortricid.

24O THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The rolled leaves serve the Tortricid larvae not merely
as homes but also as food, for they feed upon the enclosed
portions. Sometimes several leaves are used by a larva,
but more often only one, or in many cases merely a tip or
one edge of a leaf is used. Some species cut a slit in a leaf
and roll only one part of it. They also differ greatly as to
the extent to which the leaves are rolled. Some species are
gregarious, an entire brood making a common nest. During
the latter part of the summer and in the autumn these
rolled leaves can be found on almost any tree or shrub.

In nearly all cases entomologists in naming Tortricids
have formed the specific name with the ending -ana; so
that the form of the name indicates the family to which the
insect belongs.

More than four hundred North American species of
Tortricids are known. The superfamily includes three fam-
ilies, which can be separated by the following table :

A. With a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the
hind wings, on the upper side of the wing. Do not mistake a
bunch of long hairs arising from the wing back of vein VII for
this fringe, p. 240 ............ ............. GRAPHOLITHID^E.

A A. Without a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII o f

the hind wings.

B. Vein VII 2 of the fore wings arising from the outer fourth of the
discal cell, p. 243 .............................. CONCHYLIDJE.

BB. Vein VIU of the fore wings arising from a point before the
outer third of the discal cell, p. 244

Family GRAPHOLITHID^E (Graph-o-lith'i-dae).
TJic Grap/iolithids (Gra-phol' i-thids).

These moths are easily distinguished from other Tortri-
cids by the presence of a fringe of long hairs on the basal
part of cubitus of the hind wing. To this family belong
nearly two thirds of our species of Tortricids. The follow
ing are some of our more common species :

LEPIDOP TERA . 24 1

The Codling-moth, Carpocapsa poinonella (Car-po-cap'sa
pom-o-nel'la). This is the best-known and probably the
most important insect enemy of the fruit-grower. The
larva is the worm found feeding near the core of wormy
apples. The adult (Fig. 288) is a beautiful little creature
with finely mottled pale gray or rosy fore
wings. There is a large brownish spot near
the end of the fore wing, and upon this spot
irregular, golden bands. The moth issues
from the pupa state in late spring and lays
its eggs singly on the surface of the fruit or
on adjacent leaves. As soon as the larva hatches it bur-
rows into the apple and eats its way to the core, usually
causing the fruit to fall prematurely. When full grown
the larva burrows out through the side of the fruit, and
undergoes its transformations within a cocoon, under the
rough bark of the tree, or in some other protected place.
The species is both single-brooded and double-brooded.
The larvae winter in their cocoons, transforming to pupae
during early spring.

The method of combating this pest that is most com-
monly employed now is to spray the trees with Paris-
green water, just after the petals fall and before the young
apples are heavy enough to droop. The falling spray
lodges in the blossom end of the young apple, and many
of the larvae which attempt to enter at this point, the
usual place of entrance, get a dose of poison with their
first meal.

The Bud-moth, Tinetocera occllana (Tme-toc'e-ra oc-el-
la'na). The larva of this insect is also a pest infesting ap-
ple-trees. It works in opening fruit-buds and leaf-buds, of ten
eating into them, especially the terminal ones, so that all new
growth is stopped. It also ties the young leaves at the end
of a shoot together and lives within the cluster thus formed,
adding other leaves when more food is needed. Sometimes
so large a proportion of the fruit-buds are destroyed as to
17

242

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

seriously reduce the amount of the crop. Th^ pupa state is
passed within the cluster of tied leaves or within a tube
formed by rolling up one side of a leaf, and lasts about ten
days. The moth expands about three fifths of an inch ; it is
of a dark ashen gray, with a large, irregular, wl.itish band on
the fore wing.

FIG. 289. Reii'iiLi <.oinstockia.no,, larva, pupa, adult, and work. (From the Author's

Report for 1879.)

The Pitch-pine Retinia, Retinia comstockiana (Re-tin'i a
com-stock-i-a'na). This species (Fig. 289) illustrates well

LEPIDOPTERA.

243

the habits of the boring species. The larva infests the
small branches of pitch-pine. It is a yellowish-brown
caterpillar, which makes a burrow along the centre of
the branch. Its presence may be detected by the resin
that flows out of the wound in the twig and hardens
into a lump. Two of these lumps are shown in the
figure, one of them splits lengthwise,
and the other with a pupa-skin pro-
jecting from it. The larva, pupa,
and adult are also figured. The
moth is represented natural size ;
the darker shades are dark rust-
color, and the lighter, light-gray.
The insect winters as a larva; the
adult emerges in May and June.

The Frustrating Retinia, Rctinia
/r?/.y/'ra;/tf(frus-tra'na). Thisspecies
infests the new growth of several
species of pine, spinning a delicate
web around the terminal bud, and

pupa, adult, and work. (From

mining both the twig and the bases the Author's Report for i8 79 .)
of the leaves. The larva, pupa, and adult are represented
somewhat enlarged in the figure. An infested twig is also
shown (Fig. 290).

Family CONCHYLID^; (Con-chyl'i-dae).
The ConcJiylids (Con' cJiy-lids).

This is the smallest of the three families of Tortricids, less
than fifty species occurring in our fauna. The members of
it can be recognized by the characters given in the table
above. Comparatively little is known about the habits of
our species.

The Juniper Web-worm, Conchylis riitilana (Con'chy-lis
ru-ti-la'na), is an imported species which has attracted atten-

244

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

tion by its injuries to junipers, the leaves of which it fastens
together with silk. In this way it makes a more or less per-
fect tube within which it lives. The moth expands about
one half inch, and has bright, glossy, orange, fore wings.
crossed by four reddish brown bands.

Family TORTRICID^E (Tor-tric'i-dae).
Tlie Typical Tortricids ( Tor' tri-dds).

The Tortricidae agree with the preceding family in lack-
ing a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the
hind wings, but differ in that vein VII 2 of the hind wings
separates from the main stem before the outer third of the
discal cell. More than one hundred and twenty North
American species are known.

Several of our best-known members of this family belong
to the genus Caccecia (Ca-coe'ci-a). These may be called the
Ugly-nest Tortricids, ugly dwelling being the meaning of
Caccecia, and also descriptive of the nests of the larvae of
these insects.

Figure 291 represents the nest of the larva of Caccecia ro-
sana (C. ro-sa'na), which we bred on currant ; and Figure 292,

the adult of this species. This
moth expands three fourths of
an inch. The fore wings are
olive-brown, crossed by bands
of darker color ; the hind wings
are dusky. This species differs

FIG. 291. Nest of Caccecia. rosana.

FIG. 292. -Caccecia rosana.

from the two following in that each larva makes a nest for
itself.

LEP1DOPTERA.

245

The Cherry-tree Ugly-nest Tortricid, Caccecia cerasivo-
rana (C. cer-a-si-vo-ra'na), lives upon the
choke-cherry and sometimes upon the cul-
tivated cherry. The larvae, which are yel-
low, active creatures, fasten together all
the leaves and twigs of a branch and feed
upon them (Fig. 293), an entire brood oc
cupying a single nest. The larvae change
to pupae within the nest; and the pupae,
when about to transform, work their way
out and hang suspended from the outer
portion of the nest, clinging to it only by
hooks at the tail end of the body. Here
they transform, leaving the empty pupa-
skins projecting from the nest, as shown
in the figure. The moths vary in size, the
jj^HU wing expanse of those we have bred rang-
ing from four fifths of an inch to nearly
one and one-fifth inches. The wings are
bright ochre-yellow ; the front pair marked
with irregular brownish spots and numer-

FlG. 293. Nest of Caccecia FIG. 294. Caccecia. certisi-
cer ashiar ana. vorana, male.

FlG. 295. Caccecia cerasi-
vorana, female.

ous transverse bands of pale leaden blue (Fig. 294 male,
295 female).

The Oak Ugly-nest Tortricid, Caccecia fervadana (C. fer-
ra-da /ia). The nests of this species are common on out
oak-trees in late summer. They are merely a wad of leaves
fastened together. Each nest contains several larvae ; later
the empty pupa-skins may be found clinging to the outside
of the nest as in the preceding species.

The Pine-leaf Tube-builder, Loplioderus, politana (Lo-

246

THE STUDY Of INSECTS.

phod'e-rus pol-i-ta'na). One of the most interesting of Tor-
tricid nests occurs commonly on white pine. Each nest
consists of from six to ten leaves drawn together so as to
form a tube, and is lined within with silk. This tube serves
as a protection to the larva, from which it comes out to feed
upon the ends of the very leaves of which the tube is com-
posed ; in this way the tube is shortened. We bred the
moth from nests collected at Ithaca, New York; but we
have found similar nests as far south as Florida. The moth
expands one half inch. Its head, thorax, and fore wings are
of a dull rust-red color, with two oblique paler bands cross-
ing the fore wings, one a little before the middle, the other
beyond, parallel to it.

Superfamily TlNElNA (Tin-e-i'na).
The Tineids ( Tin'e-ids).

The Tineids are nearly all minute moths with narrow
wings, which are bordered with wide fringes. A few species
are of considerable size, and have broader wings, with nar-
rower fringes.

The narrow-winged forms can be distinguished from all
other moths by the shape of the wings and the great width
of the fringes. The moths figured below .(Fig- s - 298, 299,
300, 302) illustrate this. It should be remembered that in

each of these figures the insect
is represented greatly enlarged ;
in most cases the size of the
insect is represented by a hair-
line near the figure.

The wide- winged forms are
most surely distinguished by
the venation of the wings. In
F.G. 29 6.-wings of De/ressaria '** roore general features the

heracliana. VCHatlOn of tllC willgS ill this

family is similar to that of the Tortricids ; it differs, how-

L EPID OP 7 'ERA. 247

ever, in that the second anal vein of the hind wings is not
forked towards the base (Fig. 296).

The venation of the wings of the more generalized Tineids is quite
primitive in type; there are two anal veins in the fore wings, three
anal veins in the hind wings, and the base of vein V is preserved
throughout the length of the discal cell. But the more specialized
members of the superfamily present a wide departure from this gen
eralized type. With these the base of vein V has disappeared from
both pairs of wings, and the venation of the hind wings is reduced to
a greater extent than is seen elsewhere in winged Lepidoptera.

Correlated with this great reduction of the hind wings there has
been a great expansion of the fringe of the wing. It is evident that
the fringe of the wing takes the place of the wing-membrane as an
organ of flight. In those Tineids that we have studied carefully the
hairs composing the fringe are inserted in the lower side of the wing-
membrane a short distance back from the edge of the wing; and the
edge of the wing is stiffened above by strong overlapping scales.
This arrangement renders the fringe rigid during the downward
stroke of the wing, but admits of its depression during the upward
stroke; a combination well adapted to facilitate flight. The substi-
tution of wide fringes for the wing-membrane occurs in some other
minute insects, as Thrips and certain minute, parasitic Hymenop-
tera.

To this superfamily belong the smallest of the Lepidop-
tera ; many of them are so minute that the larvae live until
full grown within the tissue of leaves.

These tiny moths are often very beautiful, their wings
being marked with scales that shine like silver or gold ; but
they are so small that it is necessary to examine them with
a lens to appreciate their beauty.

The larvae of nearly all Tineids feed upon vegetable
matter. The majority of them feed upon or within the
leaves of plants, but many live within nuts, or seeds, or dried
fruits ; a few feed upon dead animal matter, as woolens,
furs, and feathers ; and some are predaceous, destroying
scale-bugs.

Entomologists have a custom of terminating the name
of each species of Tineid with -clla. Thus we have Tinea

248 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

granella, Adela ridingsclla, Bucculatrix pomonclla, and many
hundreds of others; until the syllable -ella always brings
before us a vision of a tiny moth, with narrow wings bear-
ing long delicate fringes.

The Tineids are very numerous, there being nearly one
thousand described American species ; and doubtless there
are many undescribed as yet. The superfamily is composed
of several families ; but, as the study of these insects is
too difficult to be carried far by the beginning student, we
will not take the space to define these families in this work.
We will merely describe the habits of a few species.

At first thought the leaves of our common shrubs and
trees seem quite as thin as if they had been cut out of
sheets of paper. But the reader has doubtless learned in
the study of Botany that the upper and the lower surfaces
of a leaf are each covered with a thin skin or epidermis, and
that between these two skins there is a fleshy portion called
the parenchyma. But if botanists had failed to teach us
this lesson, the Tineid larvae would have done so; for many
of these little creatures live until full grown between the two
skins of a leaf, and derive their nourishment from the paren-
chyma. As our coal-miners dig tunnels in the earth, so do
these larvae eat out long passages in the substance of a leaf,
without breaking through either epidermis.

Durincr the late summer and autumn there can be found

o

on almost any shrub or tree leaves that are more or less dis*
colored by white or grayish blotches or by long twisted
lines that reveal the abiding-places of leaf-miners. Surely
Mr. Lowell must have had these in mind when he wrote :

" And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace."

Not only are very many kinds of plants infested by
Tineid larvae, but the mines in the leaves differ greatly in
form and in their position in the leaf. These differences in
food-plant and in the shape and position of the mines do

LEPIDOPTERA.

249

not indicate that these larvae are inconstant in their habits.
In fact, the opposite is the case. Each species of Tineid
infests a particular species of plant, or, at the most, several
closely allied plants. And each species makes a mine of
definite shape, although some species exhibit different habits
in the different stages of their growth. So constant are
these creatures in their habits that in most cases an expert
can determine the species of Tineid that made a mine by
merely examining the infested leaf.

The various kinds of mines can be classed under a few
distinct types. The long, narrow, and more or less winding
mines are described as
linear mines. Some of
these are very narrow at
their beginning and grad-
ually enlarge, resembling
in outline a serpent ; fre-
quently the larger end is
terminated by a blotch-
like enlargement, suggest-
ing a head. Such mines
are termed serpentine
mines. The leaves of the
wild columbine are often
marked by serpentine
mines (Fig. 297). Other

mines that start from a narrow beginning enlarge more
rapidly and extend in a more or less regular curve ; these
are trumpet mines. A common example of a trumpet
mine is that made by the larva of TiscJicria malifoliella
(Tis-che'ri-a mal-i-fol-i-el'la) in the leaves of apple. The
mines of many species are mere disk-like blotches ; these are
referred to as blotch mines (Fig. 298). Blotch mines differ in
position ; some are immediately beneath the upper epider-
mis, while others are nearer the lower surface of the leaf.
This distinction exists also in most of the other types of

FIG. 297. Leaf with serpentine mines

250

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

mines. In some of the blotch mines the epidermis of one
side of the leaf is thrown into a fold by the growth of the
leaf ; these are tentiform mines.

In addition to peculiarities in shape many mines are
marked by characteristic lines or spots composed of the
droppings of the larva.

The following species will serve to illustrate the habits
of these remarkable insects.

The White-blotch Oak-leaf Miner, LitJiocolletis hamadrya-
della (Lith-o-col-le'tis ha-mad-ry-a-del'la). This little miner
infests the leaves of many different species of oak, and some-

^Bi "^> v^ J~ -

'- "^^ 'Sm"' *^

' ,.' - - -o- i

FIG. 298. Lithocolletis haitiadryTdcllu: a, mine; 6, young larva; c, full-grown, flat-form
larva; d, head of same, enlarged; e, antenna of same, enlarged; /", round-form larva
from above; g, same from below; A, head of same, enlarged; /, antenna of same, en-
larged; , maxilla and palpus of same, enlarged; /, labium, labial palpi, and spinnerets
of same; , pupa; , side view of pupal crest; a, front view of same; g, cocoon; Q,
moth. (From the Author's Report for 1879.)

times it is extremely abundant. We have seen trees infested
so badly that there were on an average four or five mines in
each leaf. Figure 298 represents a leaf from such a tree. The
mine is a whitish, blotch mine in the upper side of the leaf.

LFJIDOPTERA. 251

The young larva is remarkable in resembling more the larva
of a beetle than the ordinary type of lepidopterous larvae.
It is nearly flat ; the lirst thoracic segment is much larger than
any of the others ; the body tapers towards the hind end ;
and there are only the faintest rudiments of legs discernible.
The larvae molt seven times. At the seventh molt the form
of the body undergoes a striking change. It now becomes
cylindrical in form, there is a great change in the shape of
the mouth-parts, and the fourteen feet are well developed.
This change in form during the life of the larva is charac-
teristic of a large group of Tineids of which this species may
be taken as a type. The full-grown cylindrical larva meas-
ures about one-fifth inch in length. It spins a cocoon, which
is simply a delicate, semi-transparent, circular sheet of white
silk, stretched over a part of the floor of the mine. The
pupa is dark brown in color, and bears a toothed crest upon
its head, which enables it doubtless to pierce or saw its way
out from the cocoon. The moth is a delicate little creature,
whose wings expand a little more than one-fourth inch. The
fore wings are white, with three, broad, irregular, bronze
bands across each, and each band is bordered with black on
the inner side. The hind wings are silvery.

As this insect passes the winter as a larva within the dry
leaves, the best way to check its ravages when it becomes a
pest is to rake up and burn such leaves.

The Palmetto-leaf Miner, Lavcrna sabalclla (La-ver'na
sab-a-lel'la) . This species occurs only in the South where
the saw-palmetto grows. But it is of general interest as
illustrating a peculiar type of larval habit. The larvae can
hardly be said to be leaf-miners; for they feed upon the
upper surface of the leaf, destroying the skin as well as the
fleshy part of the leaf. They are social, working together in
small companies, and make a nest consisting of a delicate
sheet of silk covering that part of the leaf upon which they
are feeding; this sheet is covered with what appears like
sawdust, but which is really a mass of the droppings of the

252

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

larvas (Fig. 299). The full grown larva attains a length of
half an inch. The pupa state is passed within the nest made
by the larvae. The moth is quite large for a Tineid, the
wings expanding five eighths of an inch. Its general color is

ULNlBHOLBiENb

FIG. 2g^.Laverna. sabalella, larva, pupa, adult, and part of injured leaf. (From
the Author's Report for 1879.)

a delicate silvery gray, with a tinge of lavender in some in-
dividuals.

The Pine-leaf Miner, Gelechiapinifoliella(Ge-\e r c\i\-a. pin-i-
fol-i-el'la). It often happens that the ends of the leaves of
pine present a dead and brown appearance that is due to the
interior of the leaf having been eaten out. This is the work
of the Pine-leaf Miner (Fig. 300). At the right season it is
easy to see the long, slender larva in its snug retreat by
holding a leaf up to the light and looking through it ; and
later the pupa can be seen in the same way. Near the lower
end of the tunnel in each leaf there is a round hole through
which the larva entered the leaf and from which the adult
emerges. We have found this insect in several of the
stouter-leaved species of pine, but never in the slender
leaves of the white pine. In the North it is most abundant
in the leaves of pitch-pine.

LEPIDOPTERA.

The Apple Bucculatrix, Bucculatrix pomifoliella (Buc cu-
la'trix pom-i-fol-i-el'la). This insect differs in habits in sev-

FIG. yx>.Geleckia. pinifoliellii, larva, pupa, adult, and leaves mined by the larva. (From

the Author s Report lor 1879.;

eral respects from any of the other Tineids described here.
The larva infests the leaves of apple, and when full grown
it makes a small white cocoon which is attached to the
lower surface of a twig. These cocoons sometimes occur in
great numbers, side by side, on the twigs of an infested tree
(Fig. 301). They are easily recognized by their shape being
slender, and ribbed lengthwise. It is these cocoons tha*:
usually first reveal the presence of this pest in an orchard.
They are very conspicuous during the winter when the
leaves are off the trees. At this time each cocoon contains
a pupa. The adult moth emerges in early spring. The
ees are laid on the lower surface of the leaves. Each

oo

larva when it hatches bores directly from the egg to the
upper surface of the leaf, where it makes a brown serpentine

254

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

mine. When these mines are abundant in a leaf it turns
yellow and dies. When the larva has made a mine from
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, which it does in
from four to five days, it eats its way out through the upper
surface. Then somewhere on the upper
surface of the leaf it weaves a circular silken
covering about one-twelfth inch in diam-
eter. Stretched out on this network the
larva, which is now about one-tenth inch long,
makes a small hole in it near its edge, then,
as one would turn a somersault, it puts its
head into this hole and disappears beneath
the silken covering, where it undergoes a
change of skin. It remains in the molting
cocoon usually less than twenty-four hours.
After leaving this cocoon it feeds upon the
leaves without making a mine ; and in a few
days makes a second molting cocoon which
differs from the first only in being about one-
eighth inch in diameter. After leaving this it
again feeds for a few days, and then mi-
grates to a twig where it makes the long
ribbed cocoon within which the pupa state is passed. This
very interesting life-history was first worked out by Mr. A. E.
Brunn while a student in the writer's laboratory at Cornell
University.

When it is necessary to combat this pest the smaller
twigs bearing cocoons should be pruned as far as practicable
during the winter and burned, and those cocoons that
remain on the larger branches should be washed with strong
kerosene emulsion.

The Resplendent Shield-bearer, Aspidisca splendoriferella
(As-pi-dis'ca splen-do-rif-e-rel'la). This Tineid is both a
miner and a case-bearer. It feeds within apple-leaves, and at
first makes a linear mine ; but later this is enlarged into a
blotch mine. When full grown the larva makes an oval case

FIG. 301. Cocoons
of Bucculalrix pom-
ifoliella.

LEPIDOP TERA . 255

cut from the walls of its mine and lined with silk. It then
seeks a safe place in which to fasten this case and pass the
winter. This is usually on the trunk or on a branch of the in-
fested tree (Fig. 302). Once some of these migrating larvae
dropped from a tree upon the writer's hat and carefully

?IG. 302. Aspidisca splendoriferella : a, leaf of apple showing work ; 6, summer larva ;
c, larva in case travelling ; i/, cases tied up for winter ; e, hibernating larva ; _/", pup a ;
g, moth ; A, parasite. (From the Author's Report for 1879.)

faster/ed themselves to the band with misplaced confidence
that they could remain there till spring. The adult has
gray and golden wings with silvery and dark markings.

The Maple-leaf Cutter, Incurvaria acerifoliella (In-cur-
va'ri-a a-cer-i-fol-i-el'la). This insect illustrates still another

2 5 6

THE STUD Y OF INSECTS.

curious type of larval habits. It infests the leaves of maple,
and occasionally is so abundant that it does serious injury.
The leaves of an infested tree present a strange appearance
(Fig. 303). They are perforated with numerous elliptical holes,

and marked by many more or
less perfect ring-like patches
in which the green substance
of the leaf has been destroyed,
but each of which incloses an
uninjured spot. These inju-
ries are produced as follows:
The young larva cuts an oval
piece out of a leaf, places it
over its back, and fastens it
down with silk around the
edges. This serves as a house
beneath which it lives. As it
grows this house becomes too
small for it. It then cuts out
a larger piece which it fastens
to the outer edges of the

FIG. 303. Leaf infested by Incurvaria. smaller OtlC, the larva being

between the two. Then it fastens one edge of this case to
the leaf by a silken hinge so that it will not fall to the
ground " cradle and all," and then turns the case over so that
the larger piece is over its back. When it wishes to change
its location it thrusts out its head and fore legs from the
case and walks off, looking like a tiny turtle. When it
wishes to eat it fastens the case to the leaf and, thrusting its
head out, eats the fleshy part of the leaf as far as it can reach.
This explains the circular form of the patches, the round
spot in the center indicating the position of the case. The
insect passes the winter in the pupa state within its case }
which falls to the ground with the infested leaf. The moth
is of a brilliant steel-blue or bluish-green color without spots;
it appears in early summer.

LEPIDOPTERA.

Other Case-bearers. The two case-bearers described
above make their cases out of fragments of leaves ; there
are others that use the husks of seeds which they have
eaten. Such cases are extremely protective, appearing to
be merely seeds. But there are some Tineid case-bearers
that make their cases entirely of silk. These are usually
more or less nearly cylindrical, and are carried projecting
out at a considerable angle from the object upon which the
insect walks. When the insect is at rest and when it is
undergoing its transformations the mouth of the case is
closely fastened to some object, so that the insect is com-
pletely concealed. Considerable differences exist in the
form of these silken cases. In a quite common type the
case is nearly cylindrical, with a flaring lip at the head end,
and with the hind end three-sided, as if it had been pinched
between one's thumb and two fingers. In another type the
hind end of the case is somewhat enlarged and curved down-
ward so that the case is shaped like a pistol.

The Clothes-moths. These are the dread of every house-
keeper. The mere mention of the word "moths" is enough
to conjure up visions of household treasures of woolen and fur
eaten full of holes, their beauty gone, their usefulness past.
It was formerly supposed that these well-known injuries
were caused by a single species; but it has since been dis-
covered that we have in this country three species of clothes-
moths. These differ in habits as well as in structure.

The Case-bearing Clothes-moth, Tinea pcllionella (Tin'e-a
pel-li-o-nel'la). The larva of this species is a true case-
bearer, making a case out of bits of its food-material which
are fastened together with silk. As the larva grows it en-
larges its case by adding to each end and by slitting it and
inserting a piece. Instructive specimens can be obtained by
rearing the larvae, and changing them from time to time
from flannel of one color to that of another. The shape of
the successive additions to the case, being of different colors.

can be easily seen. The pupa state is passed within the
18

258 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

case. The adult is a small brown moth with a few dark
spots on its fore wings.

The Tube-building Clothes-moth, Tinea tapetzella (T.
tap-et-zel'la). The larva of this species makes a gallery
composed of silk mixed with fragments of cloth. This gal-
lery is long and winding and can be easily distinguished
from the case of the preceding species. The pupa state is
passed within the gallery. The moth differs greatly in ap-
pearance from the other two species, the fore wings being
black from the base to the middle and white beyond.

The Naked Clothes-moth, Tinea biselliella (T. bi-sel-
li-el'la). Although this species spins some silk wherever it
goes, it makes neither a case nor a gallery. It may be
termed, therefore, the Naked Clothes-moth, in contradistinc-
tion to the other two species. But when the larva is full
grown it makes a cocoon, which is composed of fragments
of its food-material fastened together with silk. The adult
is of a delicate straw-color, without dark spots on its wings.

Protection from Clothes-moths. In late spring or early
summer all winter clothing, flannels, furs, and other articles
that are to be put. away for the summer should be thor-
oughly brushed or examined for these pests, and exposed to
the sunlight as long as practicable. Then they should be
wrapped carefully in stout paper, or better packed in paste-
board boxes, which can be procured at small cost, and the
crack between the cover and the box closed by pasting a
strip of paper over it.

The Angoumois Grain-moth, Gelechia cerealella (Ge-
le'chi-a ce-re-a-lel'la). Although this insect is closely allied
to the Pine-leaf Miner, its habits are very different. This
insect feeds upon seeds, and especially upon stored grain.
It occurs throughout our country; but it is especially de-
structive in the Southern States. In that part of the coun-
try it is extremely difficult to keep grain long on account
of this pest and certain beetles that also feed on stored
grain. The adult moth is of a very light grayish-brown

LEPIDOPTERA.

259

color, more or less spotted with black ; it expands about
half an inch. The common name is derived from the fact
that it has been very destructive in the province of Angou
mois, France.

Family SESIID.E (Se-si'i-dae).
The Clear-winged Moths or Sesiids (Se' si-ids).

The Clear-winged Moths constitute a very rematkable
family, many of them resembling bees or wasps in appear-
ance more than they do ordinary moths, a resemblance
due to their clear wings and in some cases
to their bright colors (Fig. 304). There are a
few moths in other families, as the Clear-
winged Sphinxes, and certain Zygaenids,
that have a greater or less part of the wings
devoid of scales ; but they are exceptions. FlG - 3*-
Here it is the rule that the greater part of one or both pairs
of wings are free from scales; hence the common name
Clear-winged Moths.

These insects are of moderate size ; as a rule they have
spindle-shaped antennae, which are terminated by a small

silky tuft;
sometimes the
antennas are
pectinate ; the
margins of the
wings and the
veins of even
the clear-
winged species
are clothed
with scales ;
and at the end
of the abdo-

FIG. 305. Wings of Sannina exitiosa, female.

men there is
a fan-like tuft of scales.

The fore wings are remarkable for their extreme narrow-

XI

VII,

260 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

ness and the great reduction of the anal area (Fig. 305);
while the hind wings have a widely expanded anal area.
There is great variation within the family in the number of
anal veins in the hind wings, the number ranging from two
to four. The maximum number of anal veins in the Lepi-
doptera has generally been considered to be three ; but in
certain forms belonging to this family a fourth (vein X) is
quite well represented.

Another remarkable feature of all tne forms that we
have studied is that in the female the bristles composing
the frenulum are consolidated as in the male. The females
also possess a frenulum hook; but this is not so highly
specialized as that of the male.

The adults fly very swiftly and during the hotter part of
the day. They frequent flowers, thus increasing their resem-
blance to bees or wasps. The larvae are borers, living within
the more solid parts of plants. Some species cause serious
injury to vegetation. Nearly one hundred and fifty species
have been found in this country. Doubtless many more
exist ; for the family has not been thoroughly studied as yet.
The following species have attracted much attention on
account of their serious ravages.

The Peach-tree Borer, Sannina exitiosa (San-ni'na ex-it-i-
o'sa). This is the most important insect enemy of the
peach-tree. In some parts of the country it is difficult to
find a peach-tree that is not infested by it. The eggs are
laid on the bark of the tree near the ground. The larvae
bore downward in the bark of the trunk just below the sur-
face of the ground. Their burrows become filled by a
gummy secretion of the tree. As this oozes out in large
masses the presence of the borer is easily detected by it.
When full grown the larva comes to the surface of the
ground and makes a cocoon of borings fastened together
with silk. The perfect insects appear from May till October,
but most of them in the latter part of June and early {"
July. There is a single generation each year. The adults

LEPIDOPTERA. 26 1

differ greatly in appearance. The general color of both

sexes is a glassy steel-blue. In the female (Fig. 306) the

fore wings are covered with scales, and

there is a bright orange-colored band

on the abdomen. In the male both

pairs of wings are nearly free from

scales. No better method of fighting

this pest has been found than to care- FlG ' ***'*

fully watch the trees and remove the larvae with a knife as

soon as discovered.

The Pacific Peach-tree Borer, Sannina pacifica (S. pa-
cif'i ca). On the Pacific Coast there is a peach-tree borer
that is distinct from the above, and appears to be an even
more serious pest. The larva is more difficult to remove
from the tree, as it bores into the solid wood. The female
of this species lacks the orange-colored band on the abdomen.

The Currant Borer, Sesia tipuliformis (Se'si-a tip-u-li-for'-
mis). This species is closely allied to the two preceding,
but is smaller, expanding only about three fourths of an
inch. There are but few scales on either pair of wings
except on the tip and discal vein of the fore wings and the
outer margin of the hind wings. The eggs are laid on the
twigs of currant. The larvae penetrate the stem, and de-
vour the pith; in this way they make a burrow in which
they live and undergo their transformations. The perfect
insects appear in June. Before this time the leaves of the
infested plant turn yellow. If such plants be cut and burned
in May the pest will be destroyed.

The Pine Sesian, Hannonia pint (Har-mo'ni-a pi'ni).
Frequently there may be seen on the trunks of pine-trees
large masses of resinous gum mingled with sawdust-like
matter. These are the results of the work of the larvae of
this insect, which bore under the bark and into the superficial
layers of the wood. The adult resembles the female of the
Peach-tree Borer, but the abdomen is more extensively
marked with orange.

262

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The Squash-vine Borer, Melittia ceto (Me-lit'ti-a ce'to).
The larva of this species (Fig. 307) does great damage by
eating the interior of squash-vines. In some places it is

FIG. 307. Melittia ceto, larva in squash-vine.

almost impossible to raise squashes on account of its rav-
ages. The fore wines of the adult are covered with scales,

O c>

and the hind legs are fringed with long orange-colored scales.

Family DIOPTID^: (Di-op'ti-dae).
The Dioptids (Di-op'tids).

This family is represented in our fauna by a single known
species, Phryganidia californica (Phryg-a-nid'i-a cal-i-for'-

FIG. 308. Pliryganidia californica.

ni-ca), which occurs in Califor-
nia. This is a pale-brown
insect, with nearly transparent
wings (Fig. 308). The veins
of the wings are dark, which
renders them prominent. In
the males there is a yellowish

FIG. 309. Wings of Phryganidia.

spot just beyond the discal cell. The venation of the wings

LEPIDOPTERA. 263

(Fig. 309) is very different from that of any other insect
that occurs in this country.

The larvae feed upon the leaves of live-oaks, and some-
times occur so abundantly as to almost strip the trees of
their foliage. They are said to feed singly, and appear to
make little if any use of the anal feet as a means of loco-
motion, generally carrying the last segment of the body
elevated in the air.

Family NOTODONTID^: (No-to-don'ti-dae).
The Prominents.

This family includes moths of moderate size, only a few
of the larger ones expanding more than two inches. With
these moths the. body is rather stout and densely clothed
with hair, and the legs, especially the femora, are clothed
with long hairs. The wings are strong, and not very broad,
the anal angle of the hind wings rarely reaching the end of
the abdomen. In their general appearance many of these
moths bear a strong resemblance to the Owlet Moths or
Noctuidae ; but they can be easily distinguished from the
Noctuids by the position of vein V 2 of the fore wings,
which does not arise nearer to vein VII than to vein III,
as it does in that family.

In some species the front wing has a prominence or
backward - project-
ing lobe on the in-
ner margin, which
has suggested the
common name of
Prominents for
these insects (Fig.
310). The name is

J I FIG. y-o.Pheosta nmosa.

more generally ap-
propriate, however, for the larvae, as a much larger propor-
tion of them than of the adults bear striking prominences.

264

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The characteristic features in the structure of the wings
are the following (Fig. 311): the fore wings have a single

in, "Ii.

VIIi

XI

Vlb

FlG. 311. Wings of Notodonta stragula.

upon the leaves of shrubs and trees.

anal vein, the hind
wings two ; in both
wings cubitus is
apparently three-
branched ; and the
subcosta of the hind
wings does not make
a sharp bend into
the humeral angle
as it does in the
Geometridae (Fig.
323). In some
forms the basal part
of vein V is more or
less distinctly pre-
served ; and in some
an accessory cell is.
present.

The larvae feed
Our most common
species live in folded
thinly clothed with

species live exposed ; but some
leaves. They are either naked or
hairs. Many species have only four well-developed pro-
legs, the anal pair being rudimentary, or transformed into
elongated spikes. Some species are hump-backed; and
spines or fleshy tubercles are often present. The trans-
formations occur in slight cocoons or in the ground.

The family is a large one, more than one hundred species
occurring in the United States. The following are some of
the more common species :

The Handmaid Moths, Datana (Da-ta'na). Among the
more common representatives of the Notodontidae are cer-
tain brown moths that have the fore wings crossed with
bars of a different shade (Fig% 312) and that bear on the

LEPIDOPTERA.

265

fore part of the thorax a conspicuous patch of darker color.
In most of our species the fore wings are also marked with a
dot near the center of the discal (
cell and a bar on the discal vein.'
These moths belong to the genus
fiatana. The common name,
Handmaid, is a translation of the
specific name of our most com-
mon species, D. ministra (D.
mi-nis'tra). But as this species
is now generally known as the Yellow-necked Apple-tree
Worm, and as all of our species are dressed in sober at-
tire as becomes modest servants, we have applied the term
Handmaid Moths to the entire genus.

The larvae of the Handmaid Moths are easily recognized
by their peculiar habits. They are common on various fruit
and forest trees, but especially on apple, oak, and hickory.
They feed in colonies; and have the habit of assuming the

FIG. 312. Dattina.

FIG. 313. Dutana, larva.

curious attitude shown in Figure 313. The body is black or
reddish, marked with lines or stripes of yellow or white.
Owing to the gregarious habits of these larvae they can be
easily collected from the trees they infest.

All of the species that we have studied agree in being
single-brooded, the moths appearing in midsummer; the

266

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

eggs are laid in a cluster on a leaf ; the larvae are con-
spicuous in August and September. In some of the species
the larvae have the curious habit of leaving the branch upon
which they are feeding when the time to molt arrives, the
whole colony gathering in a large mass on the trunk of the
tree, where the molt takes place. The pupa state is passed
in the ground, in a very light cocoon or in none at all, and
lasts about nine months in the species that we have bred.

The White-tipped Moth, Edema albifrons (E-de'ma
al'bi-frons). This beautiful moth, which is quite common,
can be easily recognized by the accompanying figure (Fig.

314); the white patch, which
extends along the costa of the
fore wing for half the length
from the tip, being very char-
acteristic. The larva (Fig. 3 1 5)
is quite common in the autumn
FIG. 314. Edema, albifrons. on leaves of oak. It is smooth
and shining, with no hairs; along each side of the back
there is a yellow stripe, and between these, on the back,
fine black lines on a pale lilac ground ; on each side below the
yellow stripe there are three black lines, the lowest one just
above the spiracles. The head is orange-red ; and there is
an orange-red hump on the eighth abdominal segment.

FIG. y.'-,. Edema albifrons, larva.

The Two-lined Prominent, Seirodonta bilineata (Seir-o-
don'ta bi-lin-e-a'ta). The larva of this species (Fig. 316) is
much more apt to be observed than the adult. It is com-
mon in the latter part of the summer and in early autumn,

LEPlDOrTERA.

feeding on the leaves of oak, elm, and basswood. It

measures when full grown about one
and one half inches in length. Its

FIG. ^.-Seirodonta. bilineata, ground-Color JS Usually green, but

larva - sometimes claret-red. There is a

pale yellow stripe along the middle of the back, and on each
side a stripe of the same color. The course of these side
stripes is very characteristic ; passing back from the head,
they converge on the prothorax ; on the mesothorax and
metathorax they are separated from the dorsal line only by
a narrow band of red or purple; on the first abdominal seg-
ment they diverge to the lateral margin of the back, but
converge again on the seventh and eighth abdominal seg-
ments. This yellow subdorsal line is bordered without by
a milk-white stripe ; and extending from this stripe over the
side of the body there is a whitish shade which fades out
below. The moth is ash- colored, with the fore wings crossed
by two wavy lines between which the wing is darker ; be-
tween the outer wavy line and the outer margin of the wing
there is a faint band.

The Red-humped Apple -worm, (Edemasia concinna
(CEd-e-ma'si-a con-cin'na). The larva of this species (Fig.
3 1 7) is common on apple and allied plants. The head is coral-

FIG. 317. CEdemasia concinna, larva.

red, and there is a hump of the same color on the back of the
first abdominal segment; the body is striped with slender
black, yellow, and white lines, and has two rows of black

268 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

spines along the back, and other shorter ones upon the sides.
When not eating, the larvae remain close together, some-
times completely covering the branch upon which they rest.
This species passes the winter in the pupa state. The adults
appear in June and July.

The Mocha-stone Moths, IchtJiyura (Ich-thy-u'ra). To
the genus IchtJiyura belong several species of brownish-gray
moths, whose fore wings are crossed by irregular whitish
lines. It was these peculiar markings, resembling somewhat
those of a moss-agate, that suggested the popular name
given above. The larvae feed on poplar and willow, and
conceal themselves within nests made by fastening leaves
together. Our most common species is the following :

The Poplar Mocha-stone Moth, IchtJiyura inclusa (I. in-
clu'sa). The adult (Fig. 318) is a brownish-gray moth, with

the fore wings crossed by three irregu-
lar whitish lines. The basal line is
broken near the middle of the wing ;
and the intermediate one forms an in-<
verted Y, the main stem of which joins
FIG. y%.-ichthynra inciusa. the third line near the inner margin of
the wing, making with it a prominent V. These lines are
bordered without by rust-red ; there is a chocolate-colored
spot near the apex of the fore wings, and an irregular row
of blackish dots near the outer margin. The hairs of the
thorax form a prominent crest, the fore side of which is a
rich dark brown. The hind wings are crossed by a wavy
band, which is light without and dark within.

The eggs are nearly spherical and smooth ; they are
deposited in a cluster a single layer deep on a leaf (Fig.
319). When the larvae hatch they make a nest either by
fastening several leaves together or, as is the case when
they infest poplar, by folding the two halves of a single leaf
together; frequently in the latter case the tip of the leaf is
folded in as shown in the figure. Within this nest the entire
colony lives, feeding on the parenchyma, and causing the

LEPIDOPTEVA. 269

leaf to turn brown. Later other leaves are added to this
nest or additional nests are made among adjoining leaves.
All of these infested leaves are securely fastened to the twig
by bands of silk. When the larvae become large they leave
their nests at night to feed upon other leaves. These they
entirely consume excepting the petioles, midribs, and larger

FIG. 319. Eggs, larva, and nest of Ichthyura inclusa.

veins. We have seen on poplar a nest composed of only
three leaves which contained one hundred and twenty-five
half-grown larvae ; all of the leaves, about thirty in number,
arising from the end of the branch bearing this nest had
been consumed.

The full-grown larva measures one and one half inches
in length. It is striped with pale yellow and brownish
black, and bears a pair of black tubercles close together on
the first abdominal segment, and a similar pair on the eighth
abdominal segment. The cocoon is an irregular thin web ;
it is made under leaves or other rubbish on the ground.
The insect remains in the pupa state during the winter, and
emerges as a moth in the latter part of June or later. In
the South this species
infests willow as well
as poplar, and is
double-brooded.

Among the most
grotesque of larvre be- FlG - 3~.-G*w< f >*, larva,

longing to this family are those of the genus Ccelodasys

270 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

(Cce-lod'a-sys), of which we have several species. One of
these is represented by Figure 320. At the left in the figure
is shown a front view of the longest tubercle.

Superfamily GEOMETRINA (Ge-o-me-tri'na).

The Geometrids (Ge-om'e-trids), or the Measuring-worms.
The peculiar way in which the larvae of Geometrids
walk attracts general attention, and has won for them

the name of Measuring-worms
(Fig. 321). As children we had
the dislike for "worms" that is
common to people that are un-
educated to the beauties of na-
ture. All larvae were " worms ";
and we never thought of admir-

FIG. 321. A Measuring-worm. . ,, . , . , , ,

ing their beautiful colors, or of

watching them build interesting houses, or of keeping them
till they spun their silken cocoons. But the measuring-
worms were excepted from this dislike. We always found
these delicate, greenish or yellowish caterpillars with their
looping motion vastly interesting. We allowed them to
measure our fingers with their little tickling feet, and we
counted each length as a yard. We were always delighted
with the way they had of standing on their hind legs, rear-
ing the body up into the air, and moving the head around,
as if looking at the scenery. And then, if one became
frightened in any way, it would drop suddenly, suspended
by a silken cord, which it seemed to have mysteriously con-
cealed in its mouth ; and down it would go, doubling and
whirling around and around frantically until it reached the
ground.

Sometimes we found these fellows on branches of trees,
clinging by their hind legs, standing out straight, stiff, and
motionless, and appearing like twigs of the tree. We had
not heard then of protective resemblances, and did not
know that the assuming of this strange attitude protected

LEPIDOPTERA.

271

III

IT

these worms from the sharp-eyed birds. If so, we should
have been still more interested in them; and we should have
been even more so could some one have told us of the
transformation of these loopers first into pupae and then
into beautiful moths. But in those days comparatively few
people thought it worth while to study insects.

The larvae of Geometrids have as a rule only the last two
pairs of prolegs well developed ; and hence, as the middle
part of the body is not supported, they are unable to walk in
the way that other caterpillars walk. It is probable, however,
that the loss of the first three pairs of prolegs is the result of the
looping gait rather than the cause of it. That is to say, the
ancient Geometrid lar-
vae acquired the habit
of looping, after which
the prolegs under the
middle of the body,
being unnecessary and
not used, dwindled
away in succeeding
generations. In the
case of a few members
of this family three or
even four pairs of pro-
legs have been re-
tained.

The Geometrid lar-
vae are mostly leaf-eat-
ing, and some species,
as the Canker-worms,
occur in such large
numbers as to be
serious pests.

The pupae are slender, and some species are green or
mottled in color in this state. The pupa state is passed in a
very flimsy cocoon or in a cell in the ground.

v,

VII,

Vlh

FIG. 322. Wings of Caripeta angustiorata.

2/2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The moths are of medium size, sometimes small, but only
rarely very large. Usually the body is slender, and the
wings broad and delicate in appearance. This appearance is
due to the fineness of the scales with which the wings are
clothed. These moths occur on the borders of woods and in
forests, rarely in meadows and pastures. Their flight is
neither strong nor long sustained. When at rest the wings
are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each other.

The distinguishing features in the venation of the wings
of the Geometrina are that vein V a of the fore wings is not
more closely joined to cubitus than to radius,
cubitus being apparently three-branched, and
that the basal part of vein II of the hind
vlt wings makes a prominent bend into the hu-
F ang.r o 3 f hawing meral angle of the wing (Figs. 322, 323).*
Except in the more specialized forms where
it has disappeared there is a rudiment of vein I of the
hind wings. This usually extends from near the base of the
frenulum to the angle in vein II (Figs. 322, 324). In Eudulc
(Fig. 323) and allied forms the rudiment of vein I lies some
distance from the margin of the wing.

There occur in our fauna representatives of five families;
these can be separated by the following table :

A. Vein V a of the hind wings wanting, being represented merely by a
fold in the wing (Fig. 327). p. 277. ENNOMID^K.

AA. Vein Va of the hind wings present.

B. Vein Va of the hind wings arising much nearer to vein Vi than
to vein V 3 (Fig. 343). Wings usually green, p. 287.

GEOMETRIES.

BB. Vein Va of the hind wings arising nearly midway between
veins Vj and V 3 or nearer to vein V 3 than to vein V. Wings
rarely green.

* In the more specialized forms the humeral angle is greatly expanded
(Fig. 343), and in some the frenulum is completely supplanted by it (Fig. 335)
The loss of the frenulum in this family, however, occurs only in highly spe-
cialized forms ; while in that series of families that we have called the Fren-
ulum-losers it has occurred in all except a very few extremely generalized
forms.

LEPIDOPTERA. 2?$

C. Veins II and III of hind wings extending distinctly separate
from each other, except that they are connected by a cross
vein near the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 335). p. 282.

HYDRIOMENID^E.

CC. Veins II and III of hind wings approximated or coalesced
lor a greater or less distance.

D. Veins II and III of the hind wings closely approximated
but not coalesced along the second fourth (more or less) of
the discal cell.

E. Veins III and Vi of hind wings separating at or before the
apex of the discal cell (Fig. 327). p. 277. ENNOMID/E.
EE. Veins III and V of hind wings coalesced for a consider-
able distance beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 324).

p. 273. MONOCTENIIDJE.

DD. Veins II and III of hind wings coalesced for a greater or
less distance.

E. Veins II and III of the hind wings coalesced for a short
distance near the beginning of the second fourth of the
discal cell, thence rapidly diverging (Fig. 341). p. 286.

STERRHID.E.

EE. Veins II and III of the hind wings coalesced to or be-
yond the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 334).
F. Fore wings with one or two accessory ce'ls. p. 282.

HYDRIOMENID^;.
FF. Fore wings without an accessory cell (Alsophila).

p. 273. MONOCTENIIDJE.

Family MONOCTENIID^: (Mo-noc-te-ni'i-dEe).

The Monocteniids (Mon-oc-te' ni-ids).

This family includes only a small number of North
American species ; but among them are those that are the
most important to us from an economic standpoint of all the
Geometrids.

The family is also of especial interest from a scientific
point of view; for to it belong the most primitive forms of
the Geometrina, certain genera, found in Australia, being
closelv allied to the Notodontidae, according to the observa-
tions of Mr. Meyrick.
19

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

In the typical forms, vein V, of the hind wings is present,
and veins II and III of the hind wings are closely approxi-
mate, but do not co-
alesce along the second
fourth of the discal cell

Vl (Fig- 3 2 4)- In many gen-
era veins III and V, of
the hind wings coalesce
beyond the apex of the
discal cell (Fig. 324).
This character is of use
in distinguishing certain
members of this family
from those of the En-
nomidae that retain vein
V., of the hind wings.
In that family a similar
coalescence of veins III
and V, does not take
place till after the loss
of vein V,. In one of

XI

FIG. 324. Wings of Brefhos infam

our genera veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce
along the second fourth of the discal cell, as they do in the
Hydriomenidae ; but the absence of an accessory cell in the
fore wings at once distinguishes this genus from the Hydri-
omenids. The following species are our best known repre-
sentatives of the family.

The Firstborn Geometer, BrepJios infans (Bre'phos in'-
fans). This interesting species has
been found only in the northeastern
part of our country ; its range is from
Labrador to New York. It is a
blackish-brown moth with the fore
wings marked with pinkish white and

the hind wines with reddish orange

FIG. 325. Brephos infans, male.

(Fig. 325). The specimen figured is a male. In the female

LEPIDOPTERA.

the black border on the outer margin of the hind wings is
narrower, and the subterminal light band on the fore wings
is more distinctly marked. The early stages of this species
are unknown ; but the larvae of European species feed upon
birch and poplar. With these the prolegs are all present ,
but the first three pairs are stunted. As this is probably the
most primitive Geometer occurring in our fauna, we suggest
the popular name Firstborn for it. In Germany an allied
species is known as the Jungfernkind.

Canker-worms. In many parts of our country Canker-
worms are extremely abundant. In such localities they are
among the more important of insect pests, often completely
stripping the foliage from fruit and shade trees. There are
two distinct species of Canker-worms; but they resemble
each other so closely that they were long confounded ; and
to this day they are distinguished only by entomologists.
The two species agree in being loopers or measuring-worms
in the larval state, in the possession of ample wings by the
adult male, and in the adult female being wingless. They
differ in structural characters, as indicated below, and also to
a certain extent in habits. In one species the greater num-
ber of moths mature in the autumn and emerge from the
ground at this season ; in the other species the insects re-
main in the pupa state during the winter, emerging as moths
in the spring. The two species are therefore appropriately
designated as the Fall Canker-worm and the Spring Canker-
worm respectively.

The Spring Canker-worm, Paleacrita vernata (Pal-e-ac'ri-ta
ver-na'ta). The eggs are ovoid in shape, and are secreted in
irregular masses, usually under loose scales of bark or be-
tween the leaflets of the expanding buds. The larvae hatch
about the time the leaves expand, and become full grown in
from three to four weeks. They vary greatly in color, and
are marked on the back with eight narrow, pale, longitudinal
lines which are barely discernible ; the two lateral lines of each
side are much farther apart than the others; and there are

276 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

no prolegs on the fifth abdominal segment. The pupa state
is passed below the surface of the ground in a simple earthen
cell, which is lined with very few silken threads. The adult
moths usually emerge early in the spring before the leaves
expand ; but they sometimes appear late in the fall, or on
warm days during the winter when the ground is thawed.
In both sexes the adult of this species is distinguished by
the presence of two transverse rows of stiff reddish spines,
pointing backwards, on each of the first seven abdominal seg-
ments. In the male the venation of the wings very closely
resembles that of Brcphos (Fig. 324); veins II and III of the
hind wings although closely approximate do not coalesce,
and veins III and V, coalesce for a considerable distance be-
yond the apex of the discal cell.

The Fall Canker-worm, AlsopJiila pomctaria (Al-soph'i-la
pom-e-ta'ri-a). The eggs appear as if cut off at the top. and
have a central puncture and a brown circle near the border
of the disk. They are laid side by side in regular rows and
compact batches, and are generally exposed. They hatch
in the spring at the time the leaves appear; and the larvae
mature in about three weeks. The larva is of a pale brown-
ish color marked with dark brown and yellow ; the body is
marked on the back with six broad and very distinct pale
lines, those of each side equidistant ; and there is a pair of
distinct prolegs on the fifth abdominal segment. As in the
preceding species the pupa state is passed beneath the
ground, but this species makes a perfect cocoon of fine

densely spun silk. The adult moth
usually emerges in the fall, generally
beginning about the middle or latter
part of October ; although a con-
siderable number come out of the
earth in the winter during warm
weather and in the spring. The

FIG. 326. Alsjphila. pometaria, . . .

male. moths ot both sexes lack the ab-

dominal spines characteristic of the Spring Canker- worm.

LEPID OP TERA .

The male is represented by Figure 326. In this species
veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce for a considerable
distance along the second fourth of the discal cell ; and veins
III and V, of the hind wings separate at the apex of the dis-
cal cell.

The two species of Canker-worms are sufficiently alike
in habits to warrant our combating them by similar methods.
The fact that in each the female is wingless and is thus
forced to climb up the trunks of trees in order to place her
eggs in a suitable place has suggested the method of defence
that has been most generally used in the past. This is to
place something about the trunks of the trees which will
make it impossible for the wingless female to ascend them.
Some viscid substance, as tar, printers' ink, or melted rubber,
either painted on the trunk of the tree or upon a paper band
which is tacked closely about the tree, is the means usually
adopted. Many other devices have been recommended.
In the use of this method of prevention, operations should
be begun in the autumn, even when it is the Spring Canker-
worm that is to be combated. For in this species some of
the moths emerge in the fall or during the winter.

Although the method just described is still the most avail-
able one when tall shade-trees are to be protected, it is now
rarely used in orchards. Here the spraying of the trees with
Paris-green water soon after the leaves appear is found
more practicable. This method has also the advantage of
enabling the fruit-grower to reach other important pests, as
the Codlin-moth, at the same time.

Family ENNOMID^E (En-nom'i-dae).

The Ennomids (En 1 no-mids).

Nearly all of the members of this family can be easily
recognized as such by the fact that vein V 3 of the hind wings
is wanting, being represented merely by a fold. In a few
species this vein has been preserved ; these can be recog-

278

THE STUDY OF IiVSECTS.

nized by the following combination of characters : Vein V,
of the hind wings does not arise much nearer to vein V,

than to vein V 3 (as it
does in the Geomet-
ridae), veins II and III
of the hind wings are
closely approximate
but do not coalesce along
the second fourth,
more or less, of the
discal cell (Fig. 327),
and veins III and V,
of the hind wings do
not coalesce beyond
the apex of the discal
cell. This last char-
acter does not apply
to the family as a
whole, but merely to
those that retain vein
V 2 of the hind wings;

FIG. 327. Wings of Carifeta angustioratn. jj-j some of tllOSC ill

which this vein is lost, the coalescence of veins III and V,
is carried beyond the apex of the cell.

This is by far the largest of the families of the Geome-
trina and contains the greater number of our larger species.
The following will serve as
illustrations of it :

The Notched-wing Ge-
ometer, Ennomos magnarius
(En'no-mos mag-na'ri-us), is
one of the largest of our
Geometrids. The larva is
a common looper upon
maple, chestnut, and birch
trees, and measures about two and one third inches in length

VII

XI

VIIj

FIG. 328. Ennomos magnarius.

LEPIDOPTERA.

279

FIG. 329. Diastictis ribearia.

when full grown. It spins a rather dense, spindle-shaped
cocoon within a cluster of leaves. The moth (Fig. 328) is
ochre-yellow with a reddish tinge. The wings are shaded
towards the outer margin with brown, and are thickly spotted
with small brown dots.

The Currant Span-worm, Diastictis ribearia (Di-as-tic'ti.s
rib-e-a'ri-a). There are several species of insects that ar<=
popularly known as currant-
worms. The most common
of these are larvae of saw-
flies, which can be easily
recognized by the large
number of prolegs with
which the abdomen is fur-
nished. In addition to the
saw-flies there is a yellow

looper spotted with black, which often appears in such great
numbers on currant and gooseberry bushes as to suddenly
strip them of their foliage. This larva has been named the
Currant or Gooseberry Span-worm. When full grown it
measures about one inch in length, and is of a bright yellow
color, with white lines on the sides and with numerous black
spots and round dots. It has only four prolegs. There is
only a single brood; the larva matures in May or June ; the
pupa state lasts about a fortnight; the moth flies during the
summer months and oviposits on the twigs of the plants ;

and the eggs remain un-
hatched till the following
spring. The moth (Fig.
329) is pale yellow, with
the wings marked by ir-
regular dusky spots, which
sometimes form one or two
indefinite bands across them.

FIG. w.-Cin t ilia catenaria. ^^ Chaill-dotted Geoni-

eter, Cingilia catenaria (Cin-gil'i-a cat-e-na'ri-a). This moth

230

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

has snow-white wings marked with zigzag lines and with
dots of black as shown in Fig. 330. The head is ochreous-
yellow in front ; and the thorax is yellowish at the base of
the patagia. The moth flies during September and October.
The larva feeds on various shrubs and trees. The pupa
state is passed in a slight but well-formed web of yellow
threads, which is formed between twigs or leaves, and
through which the pupa can be seen.

The Evergreen Cleora, Cleora semiclusaria (Cle'o-ra
sem-i-clu-sa'ri-a). This beautiful moth (Fig. 331) is common

in the vicinity of pines, spruce,
fir, and hemlock during August
and September. It varies from
a smoky-ash color to almost
snow - white ; the wings are
marked with black. The larva
feeds on the leaves of Conifers.
It is reddish yellow above, with

FIG. 331. Cleora semiclusaria. \ . i 11 j i_ 1 i M

lateral yellow bands below, while

on each side are two pairs of black hair-lines. There are
black spots above on the segments. When full grown it is
a little more than an inch long and spins a loose cocoon
among the leaves. The chrysalid is green with white
stripes and is very pretty.

The Pepper-and-salt Currant- moth, Biston cognatariu
(Bis'ton cog-na-ta'ri-a). This
moth (Fig. 332) differs remark-
ably in appearance from most
Geometrids, the body being
stouter, and the wings appearing
heavier. It can be easily recog-
nized by its evenly distributed
pepper-and-salt markings. The FlG - 33.-*/
larva feeds on various plants, but is found most often on
currant.

The Lime-tree Winter-moth, Eraunis tiliaria (E-ran'nis

LEPIDOPTEKA.

281

til-i-a'ri-a). This species (Fig. 333) resembles the Canker-
worms in many particulars. The larva is a looper which
infests both fruit and forest trees; and in the adult state the
male has well-developed wings, while the female is wingless.
The eggs are oval, of a pale yellow color, and covered
with a network of raised lines. They are thrust by the

FIG. 333. Erannis tiliaria. (From the Author's Report for 1879.)

female under loose bark and in crevices on the trunk and
large limbs. They hatch in May, and the larvae attain their
full growth in the latter part of June. The larva is yellow,
marked with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the
back ; the head is rust-colored, and the venter yellowish
white; when full grown it measures about one and one fifth
inches in length. The pupa state is passed in the ground,
from three to six inches below the surface. The moths
issue in October, and then the wingless females ascend the

282

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

trees to oviposit as do the females of the Canker-worms.
The female is represented in the lower left-hand part of the
figure. She is grayish in color, with two black spots on the
back of each segment except the last, which has only one.
The male has buff fore wings, with a central spot and a band
beyond the middle, while the hind wings are much lighter.
This insect can be combated by the same methods as are
used against canker-worms.

Family HYDRIOMENID, (Hyd-ri-o-men'i-dae).

The Hydriomenids (Hyd-ri-o-me nids\

The Hydriomenids are easily recognized by the structure
of their wings. In the fore wings the branches of radius
anastomose so as to form
one or two accessory cells;
and in the hind wings
veins II and III coalesce
along the second fourth
of the discal cell, the co-
alescence extending to or
beyond the middle of the

inv

ii

VII,

VII,
FIG. 334. Wings of Eudule mendica. FIG. 335. Wings of Dyspteris abot tii'aria.

LEPIDOPTERA. 283

discal cell (Fig. 334). The only exception to these char-
acters known to us is shown by certain genera (e.g., HeteropJi-
leps and Dyspteris) in which, owing to a large expansion of
the costal area of the hind v/ings, veins II and III have
been pulled apart as it were, and are connected only by
a cross vein near the middle of the discal cell (Fig. 335).
In a single genus (Paleacrita) not belonging to this family
veins II and III of the hind wings coalesce to the middle of
the discal cell ; but this genus lacks the accessory cell in the
fore wings characteristic of this family.

This family ranks second in size among the Geometrid
families, and contains many common species.

The White-striped Black, EiicJiccca albovittata (Eu-choe'ca
al-bo-vit-ta'ta). This beautiful little moth, which occurs
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is the most easily recog-
nized member of the family. It expands about seven eighths
of an inch, and is of a uniform black color, with a single, very
broad white band extending across the fore wing from the
middle of the costa to the inner angle, where it is usually
forked. The fringe of the wings is white at the apical and
inner angles of both pairs ; sometimes the white is lacking
on the inner angle of the hind wings. The early stages of
this beautiful moth are unknown.

The Spear-marked Black, Plcmyria Jiastata (Ple-myr'i-a
has-ta'ta). This is another black-and-white species, occur-
ring from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is much larger than
the preceding, expanding one and four tenths inches. It is
black, striped and spotted with white. It varies greatly as
to the number and extent of the white markings. The
most constant mark is a broad white band crossing the
middle of the fore wings, and often continued across the
hind wings. Near the middle of its course on the fore
wing this band makes a sharp angle pointing outward ; and
just beyond the apex of this angle there is usually a white
spot. This spot and angular band together form a mark
shaped something like the head of a spear. In some sped-

284

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

mens the white predominates; other specimens are almost
entirely black, excepting the spear-mark. According to Eu-
ropean authorities the larva is brown or blackish brown, with
a darker line along the middle of the back, and a row of horse-
shoe-shaped spots on the sides. It feeds on birch and sweet
gale. It is gregarious, a colony of larvae spinning together
the leaves of the food-plant, and thus forming a nest within
which they live and feed. The
larva has not yet been observed
in this country.

The Scallop-shell Moth,
Calocalpe nndulata (Cal-o-cal'pe
un-du la'ta). This is a pretty

FIG. 336. Calflcalpe umlulata.

moth, with its yellow wings

crossed by so many fine, zigzag,

dark brown lines that it is hard

to tell which of the two is the

ground-color (Fig. 336). It

lays its eggs in a cluster on

a leaf near the tip of a twig

of cherry, usually wild cherry.

The larvae -make a snug nest

by fastening together the leaves

at the end of the twig; and

within this nest (Fig. 337) they

live, adding new leaves to the

outside as more food is needed.

The leaves die and become brown, and thus render the nest

conspicuous. The larvae are black above, with four white

FIG. 337. Eggs and nest of Calocalpe
undulata.

LEPIDOPTERA,

285

stripes, and flesh-colored below. When full grown they
descend to the ground to transform, and pass the winter in
the pupa state.

The Diverse-line Moth, Eustromadiversilineata(}L\\s-\.\'Q f -
ma di-ver-si-lin-e-a'ta). This moth has pale ochre-yellow
wings, with a brownish shade near the outer margin, and
crossed by many diverging brown lines (Fig. 338). It varies
from one inch and a half to two inches in expanse. We
have often found this moth on the side of our room,
resting on the wall, head downward, and with its abdomen
hanging down over its head in a curious manner. The larva
feeds on the leaves of grape. There are two broods ; the
first brood infests the vines during June ; the second, in the
autumn and early spring, wintering as larvae.

FIG. 338. Eustt-ontii dii'ersilineata.

FIG. 339. Eudule mendica.

The Beggar, Eudule mendica (Eu-du'le men-di'ca). One
of the most delicate winged moths that we have in the
Northern Atlantic States is this species (Fig. 339). Although
the wings are yellowish white in color they are almost trans-
parent. On the fore wings there are two transverse rows of
pale gray spots, and a single spot near the outer margin be-
tween veins V 3 and VI I x . (This spot was indistinct in the
specimen figured.) The moth is common in midsummer.

We do not know what fancy led the naturalist that de-
scribed this species to name it mendica. But it seems ap-
propriate now to call it a mendicant ; for during the thirty
years that have elapsed since the species was described it
has not been allowed a position in its own family, but has
been catalogued in the Lithosiidae, although it was shown
to be a Geometrid long ago.

286

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

HI,

The Bad-wing, Dyspteris abortivaria (Dys'pte-ris a-bor-
ti-va'ri-a). It is easy to recognize this moth (Fig. 340) by

the peculiar shape of its wings, the
hind wings being greatly reduced in
size. It is of a beautiful pea-green
color, with two white bands on the
fore wings and one on the hind
wings. Its color has led to its being
placed heretofore in the Geometridae ;

FIG. 340. Dyspteris abortivaria. bllt the Structure of its WHlgS sllOWS

D

it to be an Hydriomenid. The larva feeds on the leaves of
grape, which it rolls.

Family STERRHID.E (Ster'rhi-dae).
The SterrJiids (Ster'rhids).

The members of this family are most easily recognized
by the venation of the
hind wings (Fig. 341). In
these veins II and III co-
alesce for a short distance
near the beginning of the
second fourth of the dis-
cal cell and then diverge
rapidly. The greater
number of our common
species are of medium
size, with whitish wings
crossed by from two to
four indistinct lines, and
with the head black in
front ; some are pure
white, and others are

brown marked with red- \ \ \ x ^-"

dish lines. About one
hundred species have
been found in this country. FlG . 341 ._ W in gs of s yne i ys ennucUata.

VII,

LEPIDOPTERA.

28;

FIG. 342 H&matopis
grataria.

The Chickweed Geometer, Hcematopis grataria (Hae-
mat'o-pis gra-ta'ri-a). This little moth
(Fig. 342) is very common in our meadows
and gardens during the summer and au-
tumn months. Its wings are reddish
yellow, with the fringes and two trans-
verse bands pink. It is found from Maine
to Texas. The larva feeds on the common chick-weed,
Stellaria media*

Family GEOMETRIDS (Ge-o-met'ri-dae).
The Green Geometrids (G e-om' e-trids).

As a rule the members of this family are bright green in

color. And as we have
but one other common
Geometrid (Dyspteris, p.
286) of this color, the
family may be well termed
the Greefi Geometrids.
The distinctive structure
that characterizes this
family is the fact that
vein V a of the hind wings
arises much nearer to
vein V, than to vein V 3
(Fig. 343). In this family
the tendency to expan-
sion of the humeral angfe
of the hind wings, which
is exhibited by all Geo-
metrina, and which is cor-
related with the promi-
nent bend into this angle
of vein II, characteristic
of this super-family, is

FIG. 343. Wings of Geometra iriefaria.

*This moth is figured and mentioned here because it is one of our
most common species, and not as a typical illustration of the Sterrhidae. It

288 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

carried farther than in the other families (except in the
Dyspteris division of the Hydriomenidae). In fact, in all
of the forms known to the writer, the humeral angle ex-
tends a considerable distance beyond the frenulum. In
the fore wings there is also a more marked migration of
the base of vein V Q towards radius than occurs in other
Geometrid families. All these characteristics lead us to
consider the Geometridae the most specialized of the Geom-
etrina.

The Raspberry Geometer, SyncJilora glaucaria (Syn-
chlo'ra glau-ca'ri-a). The different species of green Geom-
etrids resemble each other to such an extent that it is
difficult to describe any one of them in a few words so that
it can be surely distinguished. The wings of the Raspberry
Geometer are of a delicate pale green color crossed by two
lines of a lighter shade, and when expanded measure from
one half inch to one inch, there being great variation in size
of specimens. The larva is more easily distinguished on
account of its curious habits. It feeds on the fruit and
foliage of raspberry, but chiefly on the fruit. It covers its
body by attaching to it bits of vegetable matter, so that it is
masked beneath a tiny heap of rubbish.

Family AUZATID^: (Au-zat'i-dae).

The Auzatids (Au-za'tids).

Only a single species belonging to this family is known
to occur in this country. This is a small moth with delicate
snow-white wings which expand from three fourths of an
inch to one inch. This is Eudeilinea hermiiiiata (Eu-dei-
lin'e-a her-min-i-a'ta).

In the form of the body and in the structure of the wings
(Fig. 34/1) the members of this family closely resemble the

differs in important respects from the typical members of the family, and
may belong elsewhere.

LEPIDOPTEKA.

289

Drepanidae. As in the Drepanidos vein VII appears to be
four-branched, and the
course of vein II of the
hind wings is similar in
the two families, except
that in the Auzatidae this
vein anastomoses with
vein III beyond the discal
cell ; but the extent of
this anastomosis varies
greatly in different indi-
viduals of our species.
In the Auzatidae the
apex of the fore wings
is not sickle-shaped ; and
the branches of radius of
the fore wings coalesce
as in the Geometridae,

Veins III 3 and III 4 COal- FIG. 344. Wings of Eudeilinea herminiata.

Discing to near the apex of the wing.*

Family DREPANID.E (Dre-pan'i-dae).

The Hook-tip Moths.

The members of this family are small, slender-bodied
moths, which can be easily recognized by the sickle-shaped

apex of the front wings (Fig. 345). An
approach to this form of wing is pre-
sented by some species of the Satur-
niidae and by certain Geometrids. But
the former are large, stout-bodied moths ;
and the latter differ in wing venation,
cubitus of the fore wings appearing only

FlG. 345. Platypteryx
ata.

* In the Drepanidae veins III 2 +3 and III 4 +6 do not coalesce from the
apex of the discal cell outward (Figs. 346 and 347); but veins III 3 and II I 4
anastomose for a greater or less distance near the apex of the wing, thus
forming an accessory cell.
20

290

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

three-branched with them, whereas it appears four-branched
in the Drepanidae (Fig. 346).

Although the humeral angle of the hind wings is greatly
developed in these moths, some of them retain the frenulum.

TTI,

IX

FIG. 346. Wings of Oreta. rosea. FIG. 347. Wings of Platypteryx arcuata.

When the frenulum is present it is borne at the end of a
long thickened portion of the wing, so that it is at a con-
siderable distance from the point where the wing is attached
to the body (Fig. 347).*

The larvae are remarkable in having the anal prolegs
rudimentary, and the caudal segment prolonged into a more

* We class the Drepanidae among the Frenulum-conservers, although
many of them hf>v.*> 'ost the frenulum. Among the true Frenulum-losers the
loss of the frenulum occurs while the race is still in a very generalized con-
dition, no trace of a frenulum being found among these insects except a rudi-
ment in the most generalized forms (Bombyx, Cicinmts). In the Drepanidae,
however, the frenulum is retained by very highly specialized forms. There is
a striking similarity in this respect, between this family and the more
specialized Geomefids.

LEPIDOPTERA. 29 1

or less lizard-like tail. They live upon the foliage of shrubs
and trees, and transform in a web between the leaves, or
in a case in a rolled leaf.

Only a small number of species occur in our fauna ; at
present we know only eight ; and all but one of these pertain
to the eastern half of the continent.

Our most common Hook-tip Moth is Platypteryx arcu-
ata (Pla-typ'te-ryx ar-cu-a'ta). This species is of a diity
white color marked with dark brownish lines and bands as
shown in Figure 345. Its larva feeds upon white birch. Pla-
typteryx genicula (P. ge-nic'u-la), another eastern species, re-
sembles the preceding, but differs in being of a light ochre-
yellow color and in the course of the wavy lines on the front
wings. A third similar species occurs in California; this is
Platypteryx siculifcra (P. sic-u-lif'e-ra).

Family CYMATOPHORlDyE (Cym-a-to-phor'i-dae).

The Cyinatophorids (Cym-a-toph' o-rids).

The Cymatophoridae include moths of medium size,
with elongated wings. The front wings are usually slightly
widened at the inner angle (Fig. 348), and in our more
common species are conspicuously
marked with wavy or zigzag lines.
The antennae are filiform and more
or less velvety or pubescent in the
male, and the maxillae are well
developed. The moths fly by day,

and when at rest, fold their wings FlG . 348 ._~,,y a serifia ,
roof-like upon the abdomen.

The venation of the wings is illustrated by Figure 349.
The important features to be noted are the following: In
the front wing vein V, arises midway between veins V, and
V 3 ; while in the hind wing vein V s arises much nearer to V,
than to V,. In the hind wing the subcosta and radius are
distinct, and vein V, is joined to radius by a comparatively

292

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

long cross-vein (Fig. 349, c. v.\ so that the two appear to
separate before the end of the discal cell. In the males the
tip of the frenulum is knobbed.

The larvae are naked, and live upon the leaves of shrubs

and trees. They often con-
ceal themselves in a case, made
by loosely fastening together
leaves, or by folding a single
leaf.

There are in our fauna rep-
resentatives of only four or
five genera belonging to this
family ; and the species that
are common hardly exceed
this number.

One of the more common
species is Thyatira scripta
(Thy-a-ti'ra scrip'ta). This

FIG. 349. Win-suf Thyatira scripta. has faWll-COlorcd frOtlt willgS,

conspicuously marked with light bands and zigzag lines
(Fig. 348). According to Thaxter, it lays its eggs late in
July, in chains of five or six, on the leaves of raspberry, upon
which the larvae feed. The mature larva is rich yellow-
brown, often almost black, with a distinct dorsal black line.
The lateral portions are more yellow with blackish mottlings.
When at rest the larva either elevates the cephalic and caudal
ends of the body, like the Notodontids, so that the head
rests upon the caudal segments, or conceals itself in a case
formed by curling down the edge of a leaf. It makes a very
slight cocoon late in August.

Another common species is Pseudothyatira cymatopJio-
roides (Pseu-do-thy-a-ti'ra cym-a-toph-o-roi'des). This spe-
cies is slightly larger than the preceding one, expanding
nearly two inches. The front wings are silky gray tinted
with rose. They are marked with a black spot at the base,
a double or triple line, forming a black band at the end of

LEPIDOPTERA. 293

the basal third of the wing, two black spots on the outer
half of the costa, a black spot at the inner angle, and a row
of black points on the outer margin. There is a variety
which lacks the black band and the four black spots. The
larva of this species has been found on red oak ; it is of a
rich yellow-brown, mottled with fine dark lines, and lives in
a case made by fastening leaves together. It makes a slight
cocoon late in September; the adult emerges in June.

Family NOCTUID^E (Noc-tu'i-dse).

The Owlet-moths or Noctuids (Noc'tu-ids).

This is the largest of all of the families of the Lepido^-
tera ; more than eighteen hundred species are now known to
occur in America north of Mexico. The great majority of
the moths that fly into our houses at night, attracted by
lights, are members of this family.

The nocturnal habits of these insects, and the fact that
often when they are in obscurity their eyes shine brightly,
have suggested the name of the typical genus (Noctna, from
the Latin for owl), as well as the popular name Owlet-moths,
by which they are known. Similar popular names have
been given to them in several other languages,

Although there is almost no question regarding the lim-
its of this family, as yet no structural character has been
found by which they can be distinguished from certain other
moths. Neither is there a general uniformity of appearance
which we can use for this purpose, as the family includes
great variations in size, form, and coloring. But most of the
species are dull-colored moths of medium size.

The greatest difficulty arises in attempting to separate
this family from the three following. Of these the first two
(Pericopidae and Agaristidae) differ in their highly contrast-
ing colors, as pointed out in the analytical table (p. 212,
N and NN). In the third of these families (Lymantriidae)
the species have pectinate antennae and do not have ocelli.

294

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

vri,

Only a few Noctuids have pectinate antennae, and these,
so far as they are known to the writer, lack ocelli.

The venation of the wings of a member of this family is

represented by Fig-
in 4 ure 350. Vein V t of
\ Us the fore wings arises
much nearer to vein
V 3 than to vein V, ;
there is usually an
accessory cell ; and
the anal vein may
be forked towards
the base or not. On
the hind wings veins
II and III usually
coalesce for a short
distance near the
base of the wing;
vein V a may be either
well preserved or
much weaker than
the other veins; and there is considerable variation in the
point of origin of this vein.

In the typical Noctuids, the body is large in proportion
to the size of the wings ; the front wings are strong, some-
what narrow, and elongated, the outer margin being shorter
than the inner margin ; and when at rest, the wings are
folded "upon the abdomen, giving the insect a triangular out-
line. The antennae are thread-like, fringed with hairs, or
brush-like, rarely pectinate in the males. Two ocelli are al-
most always present. The labial palpi are well developed,
and in some species quite prominent. The maxillae are
quite long and stout in most species. The thorax is heavy
and stout. In some species the scales on the dorsal surface
of the thorax are turned up more or less, forming tufts.

VII,

FIG. 350. Wings of A gratis ypsilon.

LEPIDOP TEKA. 295

The abdomen is conical and extends beyond the inner angle
of the hind wings, when these are spread.

The majority of the larvae are naked, of dull colors, and
provided with five pairs of prolegs. As a rule they feed
on the leaves of plants, but some are borers and some gnaw
into fruits. Among them are some of the most important
insects injurious to agriculture.

Although the Noctuidae is a very large family, the efforts
that have been made to divide it into subfamilies have not
given satisfactory results. Many subfamilies have been in-
dicated ; but in most cases these proposed subfamilies appear
to be merely groups of allied genera which cannot be dis-
tinguished by any common character from the other similar
groups. In the following pages we have given illustrations
of a large proportion of these groups, in order to show, as
well as we can in a limited space, the variations in form in-
cluded in this family. The sequence of groups adopted is
that given in the latest catalogue of the family, that by Pro-
fessor J. B. Smith ; in some respects we doubt its being
natural.

There is a group of moths, the Deltoids, which are placed
at the foot of this family on account of their apparent re-
lationship to the Geometrids and to the Pyralids. These
moths are usually of dull colors and of medium size. The
name Deltoids was suggested by the triangular outline of the
wings when at rest, which is well represented by the Greek
letter delta. When hi this position the wings slope much
less than with other Noctuids, the attitude being more like
that assumed by the Geometrids ; but the hind wings are
more nearly covered than with the Geometrids. Many of
the Deltoids have very long palpi, resembling in their size
those of the Pyralids.

The Clover Hypena, Hypena scabra (Hy-pe'nasca'bra), is
a common Deltoid. The larva feeds on the leaves of clover,
and is a slender green worm. It measures when full grown
two-thirds inch in length and only about one-tenth inch in

296 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

width in its widest part ; it has a narrow subdorsal whitish
line and a lateral one of the same color. When ready to
transform it webs together several leaves and passes the pupa
state in the nest thus made. The adult (Fig. 35 1) is a blackish-

brown moth, with an irregular grayish
shade on the outer half of the fore
wings, and with very broad hind wings.
The palpi, which are not well shown in
FIG. 351 Hypena scab, the figure, are long, wide, and flat-
tened ; they project horizontally like a snout.

The Hop-vine Hypena, Hypcna hnmuli (H. hu'-mu-li),
is closely allied to the preceding and has often been con-
founded with it. The larva feeds on the leaves of hop, and
is sometimes a serious pest.

One of the most abundant of our Deltoids is Pseu*
daglossa Inbricalis (Pseu-da-glos'sa lu-
bri-ca'lis.) In this species (Fig. 352)
the fore wings are chocolate-brown,
crossed with yellowish lines ; the hind
wings are much lighter. The palpi
are long; but they are curved over IG '
the head, so that they appear short when seen from above,
as represented in the figure. The larva feeds on grass.

Next to the Deltoids there is placed a group of moths
which may be called the Similar-winged Owlets, from the
fact that both pairs of wings are similarly marked by trans-
verse lines. The group includes the largest of our Noctuids.

The two following species
will serve to illustrate this
group.

The Lunate Similar-
wing, Honwptera lunata
(Ho-mop'-te-ra lu-na'ta.)
This is a brownish moth

FIG. 353- Homoptera lunata. with marbled wingS. It

varies greatly in its markings. Figure 353 represents a

LEPJDOPTEKA.

297

variety which has been named ednsa, and which does not
show well the lunate mark on the hind wings that probably
suggested the name of the species. The larva feeds on the
leaves of rose, willow, maple, plum, and other plants.

The Black Witch, Erebus odor a (Er'e-bus o-do'ra). The
most magnificent in size of our Noctuids is this species (Fig.
354). There is much variation in the depth of coloring,.
The specimen figured is a female ; in the male the fore
wings are more pointed at the apex and the median band is

FIG. 354. Erebus odora.

indistinct. It is a native of the West Indies, and is not
known to breed in the United States. But specimens are
found as far north as Canada and west to Colorrdo, and
even in California. It is believed that these specimens have
flown north from Cuba or from Mexico. Recently some
observations have been made which seem to indicate that
the moth does breed within our territory ; but the question
is not yet settled. Only isolated specimens are found in
the North, and these in late summer or autumn.

298

THE STUDY OF INSECTS,

Closely allied to the moths just described is another group

of species with broad wings, of
which the Two-lined Parallelia,
Parallelia bistriaris (Par-al-lel'i-a
bi-stri'a-ris) is a good example.
This moth (Fig. 355) is brown-
ish in color, and has the fore

FIG. 355 -rarMeiia bistriaris. w j n g s cros sed by two parallel

lines. The larva feeds on the leaves of maple.

The most striking in appearance of the Noctuids, if we
except the Black Witch and one or two allied species, are
the moths belonging to the genus Catocala (Ca-toc'a-la).
These moths are of large size, often expanding three inches
or more. The fore wings are usually brown or gray, marked
with wavy or zigzag lines. The ground-color of the hind
wings is black; but in many species these wings are con-
spicuously banded with red, yellow, or white. This pecu-
liarity has suggested the name Underwings by which these

FIG. 356. Catocala ilia.

insects are commonly known in England. The genus is a
very large one ; about eighty species are now known from
this country; and many of these are extremely variable,
so that about twice that number of named forms are now
recognized. The Ilia Underwing, Catocala ilia (C. il'i-aX
will serve as an example (Fig. 356). The larvae of the

LEPIDOPTERA.

299

Underwings feed on the leaves of various forest-trees.
Many species infest oak and hickory. By careful search
both the adults and larvae can be found resting on the
trunks of these trees ; but it needs sharp eyes to do it, as the
colors of these insects are usually protective.

Among the more common Noctuids that occur in our
meadows and pastures, and that fly up before us as we walk
through them, are two species belonging to the genus Dras-
teria (Dras-te'ri-a). These may be called the Clover Looping-
ovvlets ; for the larvae feed on the leaves of clover, and, as
they have only three pairs of prolegs, they walk in a loop-
ing manner like the Geometrids.
One of these species is Drasteria
erechtea (D. e-rech'te-a). This
moth (Fig. 357) has dark or light
drab-gray fore wings, which are
marked by two large dark bands,
as shown in the figure. These
bands are always separate, dis-
tinct, and well defined towards the inner margin in the
male ; in the female the markings are much less dis-
tinct.

The other common species of this genus is Drasteria cras-
siuscula (D. cras-si-us'cu-la). In this species the fore wings
have either a distinct violaceous brown or a red shade, with
the two large dark bands very variable, often shading
into the ground-color on the outer edge or coalescing near
the inner margin ; all the markings are equally distinct in
both sexes.

There is a group of Noctuids containing about a score
of genera in which the species differ markedly in appearance
from the majority of the members of the family. In this
group the moths are of small or moderate size ; and some
of them bear a strong resemblance to Tortricids. Many of
the species are marked with bright colors, and especially
with white. The two following species will serve to illus-

FIG. 357. Drasteria erechtea.

300

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

FIG.

35 8. Lk.ixt

FIG. 359 Acontia
candefacta.

trate this group. Cliamyris cerintha (Cham'y-ris ce-rin'thal

(Fig. 358) is white, with the fore wings
marked with shades of olive, brown, and
blue. The hind wings have a narrow
border of dark scales, within which
there may be a cloudy shade as shown
in the figure, or this shade may be want-
ing. The larva feeds on the leaves of
apple. The second of our illustrations of this group is
Acontia candcfacta (A-con'ti-a can-de-fac'ta)
(Fig. 359). This species is also largely white,
with the fore wings marked with shades of
olive, brown, and yellow. The amount of
yellow varies greatly in different specimens.
The larva feeds on the leaves of Ambrosia art emisice folia.

The Boll-worm, Heliotliis anuigera (He-li-o'this ar-mig'e-
ra). This widely distributed pest is best known in its larval
state ; but the larva varies so greatly in color and markings
that it is difficult to prepare a description by which it can
be recognized. The senior author has published colored
figures of this insect, including five varieties of the larva, in
his Report on Cotton-insects and also in the Report of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1879, Plate VIII. The
larva when full grown measures about one and one half
inches in length. It is often found feeding on the tips of
ears of growing corn. It also frequently infests tomatoes, eat-
ing both the ripe and the green fruit. Occasionally it is found
within the pods of peas and of beans eating the immature
seeds. But the most serious of its injuries is to cotton.
The larva bores into the pods or bolls of the cotton, destroy-
ing them. The injury thus done to the cotton crop is
second in importance only to that done by the Cotton-worm,
which destroys the foliage of the plant. Much can be done
to check the injury of the Boll-worm to cotton by planting
rows of corn in the cotton-field, and collecting the larvae of
the early broods from the ears of corn, thus reducing the

LEPIDOPTERA. 30 1

number of individuals in the later broods which infest the
cotton.

The genus Plusia (Plu'si-a) includes a large number of
species in which the fore wings are
marked with metallic-colored scales.
The most common form of this
marking is a silvery spot shaped
something like a comma near the
centre of the wing. Plusia simplex

. \ 111 -11 FlG - 36o- Plitsia. simplex.

(Fig. 300) is a well-known illustra-
tion of this genus. About sixty species of this genus have
been described from North America. In some of the
species the metallic markings cover a large proportion of
the fore wings, and in others they are wanting. The larva
of Plusia brassica (P. bras'si-cse) feeds on cabbage and other
CrucifercB.

In the cotton-growing States the most important insect
pest is the Cotton-worm, Aletia argillacea (A-le'ti-a ar-gil-la'-
ce-a). The adult of this insect (Fig. 361) is a brownish

moth with its fore wings crossed
with wavy lines of darker color and
marked with a bluish discal spot
and two white dots as shown in the
figure. This moth is found in the
Northern States and even in

FlG. 361. Aletia argillacea. ~ . . . . . .

Canada in the latter part of the

summer and in the autumn. But this occurrence in the
North is due to migrations from the South, as the insect can-
not survive the winter north of the Gulf States. The larva
feeds on the foliage of cotton ; and as there are five or six
generations in a year, the multiplication of individuals is
very rapid, and the injury to the cotton great. Detailed
descriptions and colored figures of this insect in its different
stages are given in the works cited above in the description
of the Boll-worm. The best known way of combating this
pest is by the use of Paris green.

302

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

The Hooded Owlets, Cucullia (Cu-cul'li-a). We have
several common grayish moths, in which the fore wings are
marked with numerous irregular dashes of dark color, and

in which the thorax is furnished
with a prominent tuft of scales.
These moths belong to the genus
Cucnllia. Figure 362 represents
Cuciillia speyeri (C. spey'er-i).
These insects evidently have

FIG 362 -Cucullia speyeri. the pOWCI' of moving this tllft

of scales ; for sometimes it projects forward over the head as
shown in the figure, while in other specimens of the same
species it will be directed backward ; in this case it is much
less conspicuous. The larvae of the Hooded Owlets feed
upon the leaves of goldenrod and other Compositor.

The Scalloped Owlet, Scoleopteryx libatrix (Scol-e-op'ter-
yx li-ba'trix). This moth is easily recognized by the shape
of the wings, the outer margins of which are deeply cut and
scalloped (Fig. 363). The
color of the fore wings is soft
brownish gray, slightly pow-
dered with rust - red, and

^g||BQ^^-yy

frosted with white along the ^^H|r

costa. There is an irregular F IG - 363.
patch of rust-red reaching from the base to the middle of
the wing, a single, white, transverse line before the middle,
and a double one beyond the middle. The larva feeds on

willow. This species is found in
all parts of the United States
and in Europe.

The American Copper Hind-
wing, AwpJiipyra pyraniidoides
(Am-phip'y-ra pyr-a-mi-doi'des).

FlG. <>>. Amphipyra Pyramidoides. The fore Wl'llgS of this moth

(Fig. 364) are dark brown, shaded with paler brown, and
with dots and wavy lines of a glassy gray or dull whitish

LEPIDOPTERA.

303

FIG. 365
Balsa nialana.

These are the

hue. The hind wings, except the costal third, are reddish,
with more or less of a coppery lustre. This suggests the
popular name. A closely-allied species found in Europe is
known as the Copper Underwing ; but we prefer to reserve
the name Underwing for the species of Catocala. The larva
feeds on the leaves of grape and Virginia-creeper.
The Many-dotted Apple-worm, Balsa malana
(Bal'sa ma-la'na). In June, and again in August
or September, there is some-
times found on apple-leaves, in
considerable numbers, a rather
thick, cylindrical, light-green
worm, an inch or more in length,
with fine, white, longitudinal
lines and numerous whitish dots,
larvae of the little moth represented by Figure 365.
The fore wings of this moth are ash-gray, marked
by irregular, blackish lines. The larvae feed on
the leaves of many other trees besides apple.
The moth has been found throughout the eastern
half of our country.

The Army-worm, Lencania unipuncta (Leu-ca'-
ni-a u-ni-punc'ta). The Army-worm is so called
because it frequently appears in great numbers,
and, after destroying the vegetation in the field
where the eggs were laid, marches like an army to
other fields. This insect occurs throughout the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and
is present every year; but it attracts attention
only when it appears in great numbers. The larva
(Fig. 366) is one and one-half inches long when
full grown, and is striped with black, yellow, and
green. The adult is of a dull brown color, marked
in the center of each fore wing with a distinct white spot
(Fig. 367). In seasons of serious outbreak of this pest it
usually appears first in limited areas, in meadows or pastures.

FIG. 366.

Leucunia

unipuncta,

larva.

304

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

If it is discovered before it has spread from these places it can
be confined by surrounding the field with a ditch, or it may be

destroyed by spraj ing the
grass with Paris-green water.
Ordinarily, however, the
worms are not observed until
after they have begun to
march and are wide-spread,
In such cases it is customary
to protect fields of grain in
their path by surrounding
them with ditches with ver-
tical sides; it is well to dig

. tfj.Leufania unipuncta. holes like pOSt-holeS at in-

tervals of a few rods in the bottom of such ditches. The
worms falling into the ditch are unable to get out, and crawl
along at the bottom and fall into these deeper holes. We
have seen these insects collected by the bushel in this way.

The Diver, Bellura gortynides (Bel-lu'ra gor-tyn'i-des).
One of the most remarkable exceptions to what are usually
the habits of members of this order is presented by the
larva of this species. This larva is able to descend into
water and remain there for a long time. It lives in the leaf-
stalks of the pond-lily. It bores a hole from the upper side
of the leaf into the petiole, which
it tunnels in some instances to the
depth of two feet or more below
the surface of the water. This
necessitates its remaining below
the surface of the water while
feeding. The writer has seen one
of these larvae remain under water FlG - S^S.-A
voluntarily for the space of a half-hour. The tracheae of these
larvae are unusually large, and we believe that they serve as
reservoirs of air for the use of the insect while under water.
The form of the hind end of the larva has also been modi

LEPIDOPTERA. 305

ned, so as to fit it for the peculiar life of the insect. The
last segment appears as if the dorsal half had been cut
away; and in the dorsal part of the hind end of the next
to the last segment, which, on account of the peculiar shape
of the last segment, is free, there open a pair of spiracles
much larger than those on the other segments. When not
feeding the larva rests at the upper end of its burrow, with
the segment bearing these large spiracles projecting from
the water. The adult insect is a brownish moth which
varies greatly in size and markings. Figure 368 represents
what seems to be the more common form.

The Zebra Caterpillar, Mamestra picta (Ma-mes'tra
pic'ta). Cabbage and other garden vegetables are often
subject to the attacks of a naked caterpillar, which is of a
light yellow color, with three broad, longitudinal, black

FlG. 369. Mamestra picta, larva. FIG. 370. Mamestra picta,

stripes, one on each side and the third on the top of the
back. The stripes on the sides are broken by numerous
oure white lines (Fig. 369). It passes the winter in the
pupa state. The adult (Fig. 370) has dark chestnut-brown
fore wings and pale yellowish hind wings.

Cut-worms. Few pests are more annoying than the ras-
cally little harvesters that nightly, in the spring, cut off our
corn and other plants before they are fairly started. There
are many species of these cut-worms, but they are all the
larvae of Owlet-moths. In general their habits are as
follows: The moths lay their eggs during midsummer. The
larvae soon hatch, and feed upon the roots and tender shoots
of herbaceous plants. At this time, as the larvae are small

and their food is abundant, they are rarely observed. On the

21

3O6 THE STUDY OF INSECT*.

approach of cold weather they bury themselves in the
ground and here pass the winter. In the spring they renew
their attacks on vegetation ; but now, as they are larger and
in cultivated fields the plants are smaller, their ravages
quickly attract attention. It would not be so bad if they
merely destroyed what they eat ; but they have the unfortu-
nate habit of cutting off the young plants at the surface of
the ground, and thus destroy much more than they consume.
They do their work at night, remaining concealed in the
ground during the daytime. When full grown they form
oval chambers in the ground in which they pass the pupa
state. The moths appear during the months of June, July,
and August.

There are some exceptions to these generalizations : some
species of cut-worms ascend trees during the night and destroy
the young buds ; some pass through two generations in the
course of a year ; and a few pass the winter in the pupa state.
Cut-worms can be destroyed by poisoned baits of fresh
clover or other green vegetation, or with poisoned dough
made of bran. Much can be done by making holes in the

ground with a sharpened stick,
as a broom-handle. The holes
should be vertical, a foot deep,
and with smooth sides. On the
approach of day the cut-worms
will crawl into such holes to

. .

hide, and will be unable to crawl
out again. Climbing cut-worms can be jarred from the
trees during the night, and caught upon sheets, and then
destroyed.

One of our cut-worms, which is known as the Spotted
Cut-worm, is the larva of the Black-c Owlet, Noctna
c-nigrum (Noc'tu-a c-ni'grum). This moth (Fig. 371) is one
of the most common species attracted to lights. It occurs
throughout our country and in Europe.

At the end of the Noctuid series there is placed a group

LEPIDOPTERA.

307

FIG. 372. Acronycta moruta.

of genera, which contain species that ditfer in appearance
from other Noctuids, the larvae of many being hairy like
those of Arctiids. The fore wings of the moths are gener-
ally light gray with dark spots, and in many species have a
dagger-like mark near the anal angle. On this account these
moths have received the name Daggers.

The Ochre Dagger, Acronycta morula (Ac-ro-nyc'ta mor'u-
la). This moth (Fig. 372) is pale gray with a yellowish
tinge. Besides the black line
forming part of the dagger
near the anal angle of the
fore wing, there is a similar
black line near the base of
the wing, and a third near
the outer margin between
veins V, and V a . The larva
feeds on elm and basswood. When full grown it is mottled
brown and greenish like the bark, it is clothed with but few

// J^r> ~~ scattered hairs, and has a
'|| hump on the first, fourth, and
3J eighth abdominal segments.

The American Dagger, Ac-
ronycta americana (Ac-ro-nyc'-
ta a-mer-i-ca'na). This is a
gray moth resembling in its
general appearance the pre-
ceding, but with the black-
lines on the fore wings much
less distinct. Its larva, how-
ever, is very different (Fig.
373). This larva looks like an
Arctiid, being densely clothed
with yellow hairs. But these
hairs are scattered over the

FIG. 373. Acronycta atneneana, larva.

surface of the body instead of
growing from tubercles, as with the larvae of Arctiids. Along

308

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the sides of the body and at each end are a few scattered
hairs that are longer than the general clothing, and there
are two pairs of long black pencils borne by the first and
third abdominal segments, and a single pencil on the eighth
abdominal segment. When at rest the larva remains curled
sidewise on a leaf, as shown in the figure. It feeds on
maple, elm, and other forest trees.

The Witch-hazel Dagger, Acronycta hamamelis (Ac-ro-

nyc'ta ham-a-me'lis). In the latter
part of summer and in autumn the
larva of this species is common on the
leaves of witch-hazel, oak, and other
forest trees. It differs greatly in ap-
pearance from the preceding species,
being nearly naked (Fig. 374). When
at rest it usually lies curled as shown
in the figure. It varies in color from
light yellow to reddish brown. Its
most characteristic feature is a double
row of milk-white spots along the
middle of the back.

FIG.

374. Acronyctn
me I is, larva.

hama-

Family LYMANTRIID^: (Lym-an-tri'i-dae).

The Tussock-moths.

The larvae of these moths are among the most beautiful
of our caterpillars, being clothed with brightly-colored tufts
of hairs ; and it is to this characteristic clothing of the larvae
that the popular name Tussock-moths refers.

The adult moths are much plainer in appearance than
the larvae ; and in the genus NotolopJins, to which our most
common species belong, the females are practically wingless,
the wings being at most short pads, of no use as organs
of flight.

The Tussock-moths are of medium size, with the antennae
of both sexes when winged pectinate,d, those of the males

LEPWVPTERA.

309

ac.

i, nil nil in,

IX.

VIIi

very broadly so ; the wingless females have serrate or nar-
rowly pectinate antennae. The ocelli are wanting. The
legs are clothed with
woolly hairs ; when
the insect is at rest
the fore legs are usu-
ally stretched for-
ward, and are very
conspicuous on ac-
count of these long
hairs. The venation
of the wings is rep-
resented by Figure
375 ; in this respect
these moths are very
similar to the Noc-
tuids ; in fact we
have been unable to
find as yet any con-
stant feature in the

StrUCtureof the wino-S FlG - 37S- Wings of NoMofJnts hucostigma.

of either family that will serve to separate the two. But in
the Lymantriidse the antennas are pectinate and the ocelli are
absent ; while in the Noctuidae the antennae are usually sim-
ple and the ocelli are usually present; and when the antennas
are pectinate the ocelli, in all cases known to us, are pres-
ent : in this way a distinction is preserved between the two
families. Although it is hard to find a distinction between
the two that can be put into words, the general appearance
of the Tussock-moths is very different from that of the
Noctuids, and entomologists have no difficulty in deciding to
which family any species belongs. The Tussock-moths are
chiefly nocturnal ; but the males of NotolopJius fly in the
daytime.

The larvae of our native species are very characteristic in
appearance. The body is hairy; there are several con-

VIIz

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

spicuous tufts of hairs on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen,
and at each end of the body there are long pencils of hairs;
on the sixth and seventh abdominal segments there is on
the middle of the back of each an eversible gland supposed
to be a scent-organ similar to the osmateria in the larvae of
Papilio, and it is stated that a fine spray of liquid is some-
times thrown from them.

Excepting a few rare forms, our native species fall into
two genera NotolopJins and Par orgy ia. In NotolophiiS the
males have short, broad wings ; the females are nearly
wingless. In Parorgyia both sexes are winged, and the
wings are relatively longer than in NotolopJins.

Our most common species belong to Notohplius. Of this
genus the three best-known species are the following :

The White-marked Tussock-moth, Notolophus leucostigma
(No-tol'o-phus leu-co-stig'ma). This is our most common rep-
resentative of the family. It frequently
occurs in such great numbers that it
seriously injures the foliage of shade-
trees and orchards. The male (Fig.
376) is of an ashy gray color ; the fore
stigma. wings are crossed by undulated bands

of darker shade and bear a conspicuous white spot near the
anal angle. The female is white and resembles a hairy grub

FIG. 376. Notohplnis leuco-

FIG. 377. Notolophus leucostigma, larva.

more than a moth. She emerges from her cocoon and
after pairing lays her eggs upon it, covering them with a

LEPIDOP TERA. 3 I I

frothy mass. The larva (Fig. 377) is one of the most beau-
tiful of our caterpillars. The head and the glands on the
sixth and seventh abdominal segments are bright vermilion-
red. There is a velvety black dorsal band, bordered with
yellow subdorsal stripes ; and there is another yellow band
on each side just below the spiracles. The prothorax bears
on each side a pencil of long black hairs with plume-like
tips ; a similar brush is borne on the back of the eighth
abdominal segment, and the first four abdominal segments
bear dense brush-like tufts of cream-colored or white hairs.

When this insect becomes a pest the larvae can be de-
stroyed by spraying the infested trees with Paris-green water ;
or the egg-bearing cocoons can be collected during the win-
ter and destroyed. These cocoons are attached to the trunks
of the trees and to neighboring objects, or to twigs. In the
latter case they are usually partially enclosed in a leaf. Co-
coons not bearing eggs should not be destroyed, as many of
them contain parasites. Owing to the wingless condition of
the female this pest spreads slowly.

The Well-marked Tussock-moth, NotolopJius definita (N.
def-i-ni'ta). The male, like that of the preceding species, is
of an ashy gray color ; but the markings of the fore wings
are much more distinct. The female is light brown. She
lays her eggs in a mass on her cocoon, covering them with
hair from her body. The larva closely resembles the pre-
ceding species in the form and arrangement of its tufts of
hair, but differs markedly in color, being almost entirely light
yellow. There is a dusky dorsal stripe and a velvety black
spot behind each of the tufts of the first four abdominal seg-
ments. The head and the glands on the sixth and seventh
abdominal segments are, like the body, light yellow.

The Old Tussock-moth, NotolopJnis antiqua (N. an-ti'qua).

-The male is of a rust-brown color ; the fore wings are

crossed by two deeper brown bands and have a conspicuous

white spot near the anal angle. The body of the grub-like

female is black, clothed with yellowish white hairs ; she lays

312 THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

her eggs on her cocoon, but, unlike the two preceding species,
does not cover them with anything. The larva differs from
either of the preceding in having an extra pair of pencils
of plume-like hairs arising from the sides of the second
abdominal segment ; the head is jet-black ; the glands on the
sixth and seventh abdominal segments are vermilion-red or
sometimes bright orange ; and the tubercles on the sides of
the back of the second and third thoracic and the sixth
and seventh abdominal segments are orange-red or yellow
margined with pale yellow.

The Gipsy Mot\\,P0rt/ietrtadispar(Por-the'tri-adis'pa.r').
This is a European species which has been introduced into
Massachusetts. It has become such a serious pest that the
Legislature of that State has appropriated a large sum of
money to be expended in efforts to eradicate it ; this work is
now going on. The male is yellowish brown ; the female,

(.white (Fig. 378). In each
the fore wings nre crossed
by many dark lines and bear
a black lunule on the discal
vein. The specimen figured
is unusually small. The eggs
are laid in a mass on any

FIG. 378. Porthetria dispar, female. Convenient object and are

covered with hair from the abdomen of the female. The
larva differs greatly in appearance from that of the preceding
genus, lacking the peculiar pencils and tufts of hair ; but the
characteristic glands of the sixth and seventh abdominal
segments are present and are red. The body is dark brown
or black, finely reticulated with pale yellow, and with narrow
yellow dorsal and subdorsal lines. On the dorsal aspect of
each segment there is a pair of prominent, rounded tubercles
bearing spiny black hairs. The first five pairs of these
tubercles are bluish, the others dark crimson-red. There
are also two rows of tubercles on each side of the body
which bear longer hairs.

LEP1DOPTERA.

313

Family AGARISTID.E (Ag-a-ris'ti-dae).
The Wood-nymph Moths.

These gayly-dressed moths are a delight to the collector.
We have but few species of them in this country, and an
even smaller number are common. These moths are either
black with large, white or yellow, rounded patches upon the
wings, or they have the front wings white, margined with
brown, and the hind wings pale yellow. They are chiefly
day-flying; but some of them are attracted to lights at
night.

The shape of the antennae varies greatly in the different
genera. \r\Euthisanotia
the antennae are fili-
form ; in Alypia slightly
enlarged near the tip ;
and in Psychomorpha
they are filiform in the
female and pectinated
in the male. The max-
illae are moderately well
developed and spirally
rolled. The venation
of the wings (Fig. 379)
is very similar to that
of some Noctuids; but
there is no difficulty in
separating the two fam-
ilies, the Wood-nymph

Moths being Very dif- FIG. 379. Wings of Cofidryas gloveri.

ferent in appearance from any Noctuids.

The larvae are but slightly clothed, and live exposed on
the leaves of plants. Our more common species feed
chiefly on grape and Virginia-creeper, which they some-
times injure to a serious extent. In such cases they can be
destroyed by the use of Paris green. This substance can

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

I

be used even in vineyards in the East, as the application
would have to be made early in the season, and the sum-
mer rains would wash the poison from the vines. The
pupa state is passed either in an earthen cell or in a very
slight cocoon.

The family is one of limited extent ; less than thirty
North American species are known. The larger number of
these occur in the far West or in the Gulf States. The
following are the most common species :

The Eight-spotted Forester, Alypia octomaculata (A-lyp'-
i-a oc-to-mac-u-la'ta). This species is of a deep velvety-black

color. The front wings have two large
sulphur-yellow spots ; and the hind wings,
two white spots (Fig. 380). The figure
represents a male ; the female is some-
what larger. The patagia are sulphur-

FIG. -go Alypia octo-
maculata. yellow. The legs are black with orange-
colored scales on the tibiae of the first and second pairs.
The larva (Fig. 381) feeds upon the leaves of grape and Vir-
ginia-creeper, and sometimes occurs in such large numbers
as to do serious injury. The ground-color of the larva is
white, with eight black stripes on each segment, and a

FlG. 381. Alypia octomaculata, larva.

broader orange band, bounded by the two middle stripes ;
the orange bands are marked by black, conical, elevated
spots. There are usually two broods each year, the moths
appearing on the wing in May and August, the caterpillars
in June and July, and in September. The pupa state is
passed in an earthen cell in the ground.

Langton's Forester, Alypia langtonii (A. Iang-to'ni-5),
resembles the preceding species in general appearance, but

LEP1DOPTERA.

315

_ Psy . / lomor phv

can be readily distinguished by the hind wings bearing only
a single spot. It is not a common species, and its early
stages have not yet been described.

The Grape-vine Epimenis, Psychomorpha epimenis (Psy-
cho-mor'pha ep-i-me'nis). This is a velvety-black species
with a large white patch on the outer third of the front
wings and a brick-red patch on the hind
wings (Fig. 382). The larva resembles
somewhat that of Alypia figured above;
but it is bluish and has only four light
and four dark stripes to each segment. FlG
It feeds upon the terminal shoots of
grape and Virginia-creeper in spring, drawing the leaves to-
gether by a weak silken thread and destroying them. When
ready to transform, which is usually towards the end of May,
it either enters the ground or bores into soft wood to form a
cell. Within this it remains until the following spring.

The Beautiful Wood-nymph, EutJiisanotia grata (Eu-this-
a-no'ti-a gra'ta). This moth (Fig. 383) well deserves the
popular name that has been applied to it. Its front wings
are creamy white, with a glassy surface ; a wide brownish-
purple stripe extends along the costal margin, reaching

from the base to a little beyond
the middle of the wing, and on
the outer margin is a band of
the same hue, which has a wavy
white line running through it,
and is margined internally with
a narrow olive-green band.
On the inner margin is a yel-
lowish olive-green cloud. The hind wings are clear pale
ochre-yellow, with a brown band on the outer margin. The
wing expanse is about one and three-fourths inches. The
moth appears during the latter part of June or early in
July. The larva of this species is pale bluish, crossed by
bands of orange and many fine black lines. It also bears a

FIG. 383. Euthisanotia grata.

3i6

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

resemblance to that of Alypia, but may be distinguished by
having only six transverse black lines on each segment. It
has the same food-plants as the species described above. It
transforms in a cell in the ground or in soft wood.

The Pearl Wood-nymph, Euthisanotia itnio (E. u'ni-o).
This moth closely resembles the species just described, but
is smaller, expanding a little less than one and one half
inches. The outer border of the front wings is paler and
mottled ; and the band on the hind wings extends from the
inner angle to the apex. The larva resembles that of E.
grata ; it feeds upon the leaves of EnpJiorbia coloratnm, and
perhaps on grape also.

Family PERICOPID^: (Per-i-cop'i-dae).

The Pericopids (Pe-ric' o-pids).

These beautiful insects occur within the limits of our
country only in the far West and in the Gulf States. They

resemble the
Woo d-n y m p h
Moths in their
strongly contrast-
ing colors ; but
can be distin-
guished from
them by the po-
sition of the ori-
gin of vein V, of
the hind wings,
which appears to
be a branch of
cubitus(Fig. 384).

Our most com-
mon species be-
long to the genus
Gnoph<zla (Gno-
phae'la). These

G. vermiculata

XI

FIG. 384. Wings of Gnophczla hopffert,

are black with conspicuous yellow spots.

LEPIDOPTERA.

317

FIG. 385. Gnoph&la vermiculata.

(G. ver-mic-u-la'ta) occurs in Colorado ; it is represented
by Figure 385. G. hopf-
feri (G. hopf'fe-ri) is
found in California, in
the foot-hills of the Sierra
Nevadas. It has three
yellow spots near the mid-
dle of the fore wing, and
a transverse row of from
three to five spots near
the outer margin ; on the hind wings there are two spots near
the base and another pair between these and the apex of the
wing.

Family ARCTIID.-E (Arc-ti'i-dae).
The Tiger-moths, or Arctiids (Arc' ti-ids).

The Arctiidas includes stout-bodied moths, with moder-
ately broad wings, which in the majority of cases are con-
spicuously striped or spotted, suggesting the popular name
Tiger-moths ; some of the species, however, are unspotted.

A large proportion of
the species are exceed-
ingly beautiful ; this
renders the family a
favorite one with collec-
tors. As a rule, when
at rest, the wings are
folded roof-like upon

the body. The moths
fly at night, and are at-
tracted to lights.

These moths differ
from the following fam-
ily in having ocelli ;
these are often prominent, at other times they are difficult
to see on account of the long hairs with which the head is

VII,

VII,

IX

FIG 386 Wings of Halisidoia tessellata.

THE STUD V OF INSECTS.

clothed. The palpi are short, usually but little developed;
and the maxillae are present. The most important features in
the venation of the wings (Figs. 386, 387) is the union of
veins V 2 and V 3 of the fore wings with cubitus, making
it apparently four-branched ; and the growing together of
subcosta and radius of the hind wings for a considerable
distance. The extent of the union of these two veins varies
greatly in the different genera ; but so far as we have ob-
served it is always less
rn, than four fifths of the
m '^" length of the discal

cell. This character is
of use in separating
these insects from the
Zygaiiiidai in which
the union of these two
veins is carried farther.
The larvae of the
Tiger-moths are clothed
with dense clusters of
hairs. In fact a large
proportion of our com-
mon hairy caterpillars
are members of this
family. In some species, certain of the clusters of hairs
are much larger than the others, resembling in this
respect the clothing of the Tussock-moths. Most larvae
of the Arctiids feed upon herbaceous plants, and many
species seem to have but little choice of food-plant ;
but certain common species feed upon leaves of forest-
trees.

About one hundred and fifty North American species
have been described. The following are some of the more
common representatives.

Among the more beautiful of the Tiger-moths is a genus
the species of which are snow-white or light yellow with the

X'i

VII 2

VII,

FlG. 387. Wings of Pygoctenucha funerea.

LEPIDOPTERA.

319

FlG. 388. Haploa contigua.

fWs-,*^ "A i ^vB^

.-^s^ '**''* ' ?* f "' \ V ,-, -'^

fore wings banded with dark brown. In most species the
hind wings are unspot-
ted and are snow-
white, but in some
the hind wings are
yellow. These moths
constitute the genus
Haploa (Hap'lo-a). A
species common in the
Atlantic States and rep-
resented by Figure 388 is Haploa contigua (H. con-tig'u-a).
The insects of this genus vary greatly in their markings.
The Bella-moth, UtetJieisa bella (U-te-thei'sa bel'la) is a

whitish moth with lemon-yellow
or orange-colored fore wings,
crossed by six transverse white
bands, each containing a series
of black dots (Fig. 389); the

FIG. 380. Utetkeisa bella. \ \ i <_!

hind wings are pink, with a

black outer margin, which is bordered within by a narrow white
line. The species occurs throughout the Atlantic States.

The Harlequin
Milkweed Cater-
pillar, Cycnia egle
(Cyc'ni-a eg'le).
This larva is the
most common cat-
erpillar found on
milkweed. It is
clothed with tufts
of orange, black,
and white; those
at each end of the
body are longer

than the Others, FIG. 3 yo. >/ egle, larva

and are arranged radiately (Fig. 390). When full grown

320

THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

the larva makes a felt-like cocoon composed largely of its
hairs. The adult has mouse-gray, unspotted wings; the
abdomen is yellow, with a row of black spots along the
middle of the back.

The Hickory Tiger-moth, Halisidota cary<z (Ha-l ; s-i-
do'ta ca'ry-ae). One of the most abundant of caterpillars
in the Atlantic States and westward during the months of
August and September is one clothed with dense tufts of
finely barbed white hairs (Fig. 391) ; there is a ridge or crest

FIG. 391. Halisidota cary<e, larva.

of black hairs on the middle of the back of the abdominal
segments, a few long white hairs projecting over the head
from the thorax, and others projecting back from the last seg-
ment ; there are also two pairs of pencils of black hairs, one

on the first and one on the seventh
abdominal segment, and a similar
pair of pencils of white hairs on
the eighth abdominal segment.
This larva feeds on hickory,
butternut, and other forest-trees.
Its grayish cocoons, composed
almost entirely of the hair of the larva, are often found under
stones, fences, and other similar places. The fore wings of
the adult (Fig. 392) are dark brown spotted w